Genes are regions of DNA that encode for proteins. They contain coding and non-coding regions. There are three main types of genes - simple, variable, and transposons. Gene expression involves two main stages - transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins. Transcription and translation are tightly regulated by various control regions that determine when and how much of a protein is produced from a gene.
DNA as a Genetic Material - Dr. P. Saranraj, Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
DNA as a Genetic Material - Dr. P. Saranraj, Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
Gene expressionGene expression is the process by which the genetic.pdfANSAPPARELS
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which the genetic code - the nucleotide sequence - of a gene is
used to direct protein synthesis and produce the structures of the cell. Genes that code for amino
acid sequences are known as \'structural genes\'.
The process of gene expression involves two main stages:
Transcription: the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase, and
the processing of the resulting mRNA molecule.
Translation: the use of mRNA to direct protein synthesis, and the subsequent post-translational
processing of the protein molecule.
Some genes are responsible for the production of other forms of RNA that play a role in
translation, including transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
A structural gene involves a number of different components:
· Exons. Exons code for amino acids and collectively determine the amino acid sequence of
the protein product. It is these portions of the gene that are represented in final mature mRNA
molecule.
· Introns. Introns are portions of the gene that do not code for amino acids, and are removed
(spliced) from the mRNA molecule before translation.
Gene control regions
· Start site. A start site for transcription.
· A promoter. A region a few hundred nucleotides \'upstream\' of the gene (toward the 5\'
end). It is not transcribed into mRNA, but plays a role in controlling the transcription of the gene.
Transcription factors bind to specific nucleotide sequences in the promoter region and assist in
the binding of RNA polymerases.
· Enhancers. Some transcription factors (called activators) bind to regions called
\'enhancers\' that increase the rate of transcription. These sites may be thousands of nucleotides
from the coding sequences or within an intron. Some enhancers are conditional and only work in
the presence of other factors as well as transcription factors.
· Silencers. Some transcription factors (called repressors) bind to regions called \'silencers\'
that depress the rate of transcription.
Transcription
Transcription involves four steps:
Transcription is the process of RNA synthesis, controlled by the interaction of promoters and
enhancers. Several different types of RNA are produced, including messenger RNA(mRNA),
which specifies the sequence of amino acids in the protein product, plus transfer RNA (tRNA)
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which play a role in the translation process.
1. Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates to form a small open complex. RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter of the template strand.
2. Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, synthesising an mRNA
molecule. In prokaryotes RNA polymerase is a holoenzyme consisting of a number of subunits,
including a sigma factor (transcription factor) that recognises the promoter. In eukaryotes there
are three RNA polymerases: I, II and III. The process includes a proofreading mechanism.
3. Termination. In prokaryotes there are two ways in which transcription is ter.
Gene regulation, History and Evolution , Traditional Methods:
Northern blot
quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRTPCR)
serial analysis of gene expression(SAGE) and
DNA microarrays.
DNA Chip
Resources of DNA synthesis and Protein synthesis are here: I got them from youtube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BwWavExcFI
• Define transcription• Define translation• What are the 3 steps.pdfarihantelehyb
• Define transcription
• Define translation
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
• Define the “genetic dogma”
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
• What is the function of RNA polymerase?
• What is the function of DNA polymerase?
• Define “splicing of RNA”
• What is an exon?
• What component of the cell does the translation?
• What molecule in the cell does transcription?
• What are the functions of: operon, promotor?
• What is the difference between inducible operon and repressible operon?
Solution
• Define transcription
Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene sequence. This copy, called a
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it
directs the synthesis of the protein, which it encodes. Here is a more complete definition of
transcription.
• Define translation
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to
a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship
between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it
encodes. In the cell cytoplasm, the ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA in groups of three
bases to assemble the protein. Here is a more complete definition of translation:
• What are the 3 steps of translation?
Step # 1. Initiation:
Initiation of translation in E .coli involves the small ribosome subunit, a mRNA molecule, a
specific charge initiator tRNA, GTP, Mg++ and number of proteinaceous initiation factors (IFs).
These are initially part of the small subunit and are required to enhance binding affinity of the
various translational components (Table 8.1). Unlike ribosomal proteins, IFs are released from
the ribosome once initiation is completed.
Step # 2. Elongation:
Once both subunits of the ribosome are assembled with the mRNA, binding site for two charged
tRNA molecules are formed. These are designated as the ‘P’ or peptidyl and the ‘A’ or
aminoacyl sites. The charged initiator tRNA binds to the P site, provided that the AUG triplet of
mRNA is in the corresponding position of the small subunit. The increase of the growing
polypeptide chain by one amino acid is called elongation.
Step # 3. Termination:
Termination of protein synthesis is carried out by triplet codes (UAG, UAA, UGA; stop codons)
present at site A. These codons do not specify an amino acid, nor do they call for a tRNA in the
A site. These codons are called stop codons, termination codons or nonsense codons. The
finished polypeptide is still attached to the terminal tRNA at the P site, and the A site is empty.
• Define the “genetic dogma”
A theory in genetics and molecular biology subject to several exceptions that genetic information
is coded in self-replicating DNA and undergoes unidirectional transfer to messenger RNAs in
transcription which act as templates for protein synthesis in translation
• What is the function of Transfer RNA?
The tRNA molecule, or tr.
Covers the flow of information from DNA to Protein synthesis, Transcription, Types of RNA, Genetic code, Protein Synthesis, Cell Function and cell reproduction
Provide an in depth description of biological information transfer (.pdfMALASADHNANI
Provide an in depth description of biological information transfer (what is the chemistry
underlying each information transfer event, which nucleotide sequences are involved etc.)
Solution
The genetic information is stored in Deoxyribonucleic acid,DNA. DNA contains the information
needed to build an individual. Genetic information is transferred from DNA and converted to
protein.RNA molecules work as messengers.Proteins are the biological workers.Information of
the DNA is copied to a RNA molecule in transcription.RNA directs the protein synthesis in a
translation.Protein’s 3D structure determines it’s function.Information transfer only in one
direction.
The biological information flows from DNA to RNA,and from there to proteins.It is ultimately
the DNA that controls every function of the cell through protein synthesis.As a carrier of genetic
information,DNA in a cell must be duplicated (replicated),maintained and passed dawn
accurately to the daughter cells.
DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid,which is found in chromosomes, contains inherited
information,they are made up of nucleotides,and are what make up genes. A nucleotide is
composed of a sugar (deoxyribose),a phosphate group,and a base.There are 4 bases found in
DNA, Adenine (A),Thymine (T),Guanine (G),and Cytosine (C).Adenine and guanine are double
ring bases while thymine and cytosine are single ring bases.Nucleotides are joined to each other
by covalent bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3\' carbon atom of the
deoxyribose (sugar) of the next nucleotide.Each DNA molecule is unique because the order of
nucleotides is unique. The order of nucleotides determines the order of amino acids in a
protein.RNA is a nucleic acid composed of nucleotides and consists of one strand of
nucleotides.There are three different types of RNA- Ribosomal,Messenger,and
Transfer.Ribosomal RNA is the RNA molecules found in ribosomes. The large subunit RNA
contains the enzymatic activity that makes the peptide bonds between amino acids. Messenger
RNA is what controls the order of amino acids in a protein and determines which gene it codes
for.Transfer RNA brings amino acids to ribosomes.The transfer RNA has two recognition sites-
one recognizes an amino acid and the other recognizes one codon.The transfer RNA brings the
the correct amino acid to the ribosome.
Transcription is the process by which the information contained in a section of DNA is replicated
in the form of a newly assembled piece of messenger RNA (mRNA).Enzymes facilitating the
process include RNA polymerase and transcription factors.In eukaryotic cells the primary
transcript is pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be processed for translation to proceed.Processing
includes the addition of a 5\' cap and a poly-A tail to the pre-mRNA chain,followed by
splicing.Alternative splicing occurs when appropriate, increasing the diversity of the proteins
that any single mRNA can produce.The product of the entire transcription process is a mature
mRNA ch.
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This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
Modern Concept of Gene
1.
2. Modern concept of Gene
Group no: 3
Semester: 3rd
Section: A
Participants:
Muhammad Uzair (A004)
Shehryar Iqbal (A005)
Muhammad Riaz (A026)
Aamir Fayyaz (A010)
Rao Haseeb (A018)
4. HISTORY OF GENE
The classical concept of gene is deduced by gergor Mendal on
breeding of experiment in 1865.
Wilhem Johannsen coined the term gene in 1909.
William Beteson in 1905 coine the term genetics,
5. GENE
A gene is a region of DNA that encodes
function. A chromosome consists of a long
strand of DNA containing many genes. ...
A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA which is
made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit
of heredity.
6. STRUCTURE OF GENE
Parts of gene:
Genes consist of three types of nucleotide
sequence:
coding regions, called exons, which specify a
sequence of amino acids
non-coding regions, called introns, which do not
specify amino acids
regulatory sequences, which play a role in
determining when and where the protein is made (and
how much is made)
8. SIMPLE GENE
Simple genes have a coding sequence of bases in one
DNA strand. Upstream the coding region, the promoter is
present. Downstream, the termination region is present.
9. VARIABLE GENE
Certain polypeptides are coded not by one gene but they
are coded by more than one gene present on the same or
different chromosomes.
10. TRANSPOSONS GENE
Transposable elements (TEs), also known as
"jumping genes" or transposons, are sequences of DNA
that move (or jump) from one location in the genome to
another.
11. DNA
A nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in cells and
some viruses, consisting of two long chains of nucleotides twisted
into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the
complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and
guanine.
14. PROTEINS
A large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino
acids in a specific order; the order is determined by the base
sequence of nucleotides in the gene that codes for the protein.
Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation
of the body's cells, tissues, and organs; and each protein has unique
functions. Examples are hormones, enzymes, and antibodies.
15. PROTIEN SYNTESIS
Gene provide instruction for making
protien.
RNA bridge between DNA and
Protien synthesis.
2 Major steps.
Transcription
Translation
16. The process of gene expression involves two main stages:
Transcription: the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) by the
enzyme RNA polymerase, and the processing of the resulting mRNA
molecule.
Translation: the use of mRNA to direct protein synthesis, and the
subsequent post-translational processing of the protein molecule.
Some genes are responsible for the production of other forms of
RNA that play a role in translation, including transfer RNA (tRNA)
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
17. GENE CONTROL REGIONS
Start site. A start site for transcription.
A promoter. A region a few hundred nucleotides
'upstream' of the gene (toward the 5' end). It is not
transcribed into mRNA, but plays a role in controlling the
transcription of the gene. Transcription factors bind to
specific nucleotide sequences in the promoter region and
assist in the binding of RNA polymerases.
18. Enhancers. Some transcription factors (called activators) bind to
regions called 'enhancers' that increase the rate of transcription.
These sites may be thousands of nucleotides from the coding
sequences or within an intron. Some enhancers are conditional and
only work in the presence of other factors as well as transcription
factors.
Silencers. Some transcription factors (called repressors) bind to
regions called 'silencers' that depress the rate of transcription.
19. Transcription
Transcription is the process of RNA synthesis, controlled by the
interaction of promoters and enhancers. Several different types of
RNA are produced, including messenger RNA (mRNA), which
specifies the sequence of amino acids in the protein product,
plus transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which
play a role in the translation process.
20.
21. TRANSCRIPTION INVOLVES FOUR
STEPS
Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates to form a
small open complex. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of
the template strand.
Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand,
synthesising an mRNA molecule. In prokaryotes RNA polymerase is a
holoenzyme consisting of a number of subunits, including a sigma
factor (transcription factor) that recognises the promoter. In eukaryotes
there are three RNA polymerases: I, II and III. The process includes a
proofreading mechanism.
22. Termination. In prokaryotes there are two ways in which
transcription is terminated. In Rho-dependent termination, a
protein factor called "Rho" is responsible for disrupting the complex
involving the template strand, RNA polymerase and RNA molecule.
In Rho-independent termination, a loop forms at the end of the
RNA molecule, causing it to detach itself. Termination in eukaryotes
is more complicated, involving the addition of additional adenine
nucleotides at the 3' of the RNA transcript (a process referred to
as polyadenylation).
23. Processing. After transcription the RNA molecule is processed in
a number of ways: introns are removed and the exons are spliced
together to form a mature mRNA molecule consisting of a single
protein-coding sequence. RNA synthesis involves the normal base
pairing rules, but the base thymine is replaced with the base uracil
24. Translation
In translation the mature mRNA molecule is used as a
template to assemble a series of amino acids to produce a
polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence. The
complex in the cytoplasm at which this occurs is called
a ribosome. Ribosomes are a mixture of ribosomal
proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and consist of a
large subunit and a small subunit.
25.
26. Translation involves four steps:'
Initiation. The small subunit of the ribosome binds at the 5end of
the mRNA molecule and moves in a 3' direction until it meets a start
codon (AUG). It then forms a complex with the large unit of the
ribosome complex and an initiation tRNA molecule.
Elongation. Subsequent codons on the mRNA molecule
determine which tRNA molecule linked to an amino acid binds to
the mRNA. An enzyme peptidyl transferase links the amino acids
together using peptide bonds. The process continues, producing a
chain of amino acids as the ribosome moves along the mRNA
molecule.
27. Termination. Translation in terminated when the ribosomal complex reached one or more
stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA). The ribosomal complex in eukaryotes is larger and more
complicated than in prokaryotes. In addition, the processes of transcription and translation are
divided in eukaryotes between the nucleus (transcription) and the cytoplasm (translation), which
provides more opportunities for the regulation of gene expression.
Post-translation processing of the protein.
Gene regulation
Gene regulation is a label for the cellular processes that control the rate and manner of gene
expression. A complex set of interactions between genes, RNA molecules, proteins (including
transcription factors) and other components of the expression system determine when and where
specific genes are activated and the amount of protein or RNA product produced.
Some genes are expressed continuously, as they produce proteins involved in basic metabolic
functions; some genes are expressed as part of the process of cell differentiation; and some genes
are expressed as a result of cell differentiation.
28. Regulating the stability of mRNA molecules.
Regulating the rate of translation.
Transcription factors are proteins that play a role in regulating the
transcription of genes by binding to specific regulatory nucleotide
sequences.
Mechanisms of gene regulation include:
Regulating the rate of transcription. This is the most economical
method of regulation.
Regulating the processing of RNA molecules, including alternative
splicing to produce more than one protein product from a single gene.
