Microbes inhabit diverse environments across terrestrial, aquatic, and other organism habitats. They thrive in conditions ranging from very cold to extremely hot and can tolerate limited water, high salt, and low oxygen. Microbes in soil break down organic matter and are sensitive to environmental factors like carbon dioxide, oxygen, pH, moisture, and temperature. Aquatic microbes live in both fresh and salt water and are adapted to their environment. Microbes also live symbiotically on other organisms, with relationships that can be mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic. Microbes play important roles in biogeochemical cycles like carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles that recycling nutrients. Bioremediation uses microbes to degrade poll
Microbial interactions are ubiquitous, diverse, critically important in the function of any biological community.
The most common cooperative interactions seen in microbial systems are mutually beneficial. The interactions between the two populations are classified according to whether both populations and one of them benefit from the associations, or one or both populations are negatively affected.
Microbial interactions are ubiquitous, diverse, critically important in the function of any biological community.
The most common cooperative interactions seen in microbial systems are mutually beneficial. The interactions between the two populations are classified according to whether both populations and one of them benefit from the associations, or one or both populations are negatively affected.
IntroductionDefinitionPescidesType of pesticidesFate of pesticides in environmentBiodegradation of pesticides in soil Criteria for biodegradation
Strategies for biodegradationDifferent approaches of biodegradationChemical reaction leading to biodegradationChanging the spectrum of toxicityExample of biodegradationAdvantageDisadvantage
Sergei Nikolaievich Winogradsky And Martinus Willem Beijerinck-Discoveries,Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and the Discovery of Chemosynthesis, Scientific contributions
IntroductionDefinitionPescidesType of pesticidesFate of pesticides in environmentBiodegradation of pesticides in soil Criteria for biodegradation
Strategies for biodegradationDifferent approaches of biodegradationChemical reaction leading to biodegradationChanging the spectrum of toxicityExample of biodegradationAdvantageDisadvantage
Sergei Nikolaievich Winogradsky And Martinus Willem Beijerinck-Discoveries,Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and the Discovery of Chemosynthesis, Scientific contributions
▸ Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects and contrrajkrpurbey
▸ Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects and controls; Air, wat soil and noise pollution
▸ Solid waste management: Control measures of urban and industrial waste ▸ Environment Laws: Environment Protection Act, Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act; Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, Wildlife Protection Act; Forest Conservation Act. International agreements, policies and treaties
Food hygiene is more than cleanliness ......
Protecting food from risk of contamination, including harmful bacteria, poison and other foreign bodies.
Preventing any bacteria present multiplying to an extent which would result in the illness of consumers or the early spoilage of the food.
Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking
or processing.
Discarding unfit or contaminated food.
T-Cell Activation
• Concept of immune response
• T cell-mediated immune response
• B cell-mediated immune response
I. Concept of immune response
• A collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign substances in an individual mediated by the cells and molecules in the immune system.
II. T cell-mediated immune response
• Cell-mediated immunity is the arm of the adaptive immune response whose role is to combat infection of intracellular pathogens, such as intracellular bacteria (mycobacteria, listeria monocytogens), viruses, protozoa, etc.
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
• Major Histocompatibility Complex
– Cluster of genes found in all mammals
– Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
– Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
• MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
• In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
– Referred to as HLA complex
• In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
– Referred to as H-2 complex
• Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
– Class I MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
• Major function to present processed Ags to TC
– Class II MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
• Major function to present processed Ags to TH
– Class III MHC genes
• Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
Antigen Processing and Presentation MID
Antigens and “foreignness”
• Antigens (or, more properly, immunogens) have a series of features which confer immunogenicity.
• One of these features is “foreignness.”
• So, we can infer that – most often – antigens – ultimately – originate externally.
• (There are exceptions, of course. Some cells become transformed by disease [e. g., cancer] or by aging. In such instances, the antigens have an internal origin.)
Extinction of a particular animal or plant species occurs when there are no more individuals of that species alive anywhere in the world - the species has died out. This is a natural part of evolution. But sometimes extinctions happen at a much faster rate than usual. Natural Causes of Extinction.
Difference between In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation
Conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources helps protect, maintain and recover endangered animal and plant species. There are mainly two strategies for the conservation of wildlife: In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation. Although, both the strategies aim to maintain and recover endangered species, they are different from each other. Let us see how they differ from each other!
Evolution Of Bacteria
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago. Bacteria were widespread on Earth at least since the latter part of the Paleoproterozoic, roughly 1.8 billion years ago, when oxygen appeared in the atmosphere as a result of the action of the cyanobacteria. Bacteria have thus had plenty of time to adapt to their environments and to have given rise to numerous descendant forms.
Impact of Environment on Loss of Genetic Diversity and Speciation
Genetic variation describes naturally occurring genetic differences among individuals of the same species. This variation permits flexibility and survival of a population in the face of changing environmental circumstances. Consequently, genetic variation is often considered an advantage, as it is a form of preparation for the unexpected. But how does genetic variation increase or decrease? And what effect do fluctuations in genetic variation have on populations over time?
GENE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Subtle differences in one person’s genes can cause them to respond differently to the same environmental exposure as another person. As a result, some people may develop a disease after being exposed to something in the environment while others may not.
As scientists learn more about the connection between genes and the environment, they pursue new approaches for preventing and treating disease that consider individual genetic codes.
How to store food in hot
The Good News
To maximize benefit of preservation, keep your food as fresh as possible for as long as possible. You can do this, even in the heat, by creating a “cooler” made from two basic terra cotta pots, one larger than the other. Put the smaller pot in the larger one, fill the gap with sand, and saturate the sand with water. Then cover it with a cloth. To add additional insulation from the heat, bury the pot up to its rim. The evaporation of moisture from the wet sand will cool the air around the food and help keep it fresh.
What is IUPAC naming?
In order to give compounds a name, certain rules must be followed. When naming organic compounds, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) nomenclature (naming scheme) is used. This is to give consistency to the names. It also enables every compound to have a unique name, which is not possible with the common names used (for example in industry). We will first look at some of the steps that need to be followed when naming a compound, and then try to apply these rules to some specific examples.
IUPAC Nomenclature
IUPAC nomenclature uses the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms to determine the basic root name of the compound. The root name is then modified due to the presence of different functional groups which replace hydrogen or carbon atoms in the parent structure.
Hybridization describes the bonding atoms from an atom's point of view. For a tetrahedral coordinated carbon (e.g. methane CH4), the carbon should have 4 orbitals with the correct symmetry to bond to the 4 hydrogen atoms.
INTRODUCTION:
Hybrid Orbitals
Developed by Linus Pauling, the concept of hybrid orbitals was a theory created to explain the structures of molecules in space. The theory consists of combining atomic orbitals (ex: s,p,d,f) into new hybrid orbitals (ex: sp, sp2, sp3).
1. Why Firefly give light during night?
2. Why atomic mass and Atomic numbers are given to elements ?
3. Why elements have been characterized and classified into different groups?
4. What is the transition of elements and what they play their role in elements stability?
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Diabetes is a rapidly and serious health problem in Pakistan. This chronic condition is associated with serious long-term complications, including higher risk of heart disease and stroke. Aggressive treatment of hypertension and hyperlipideamia can result in a substantial reduction in cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes 1. Consequently pharmacist-led diabetes cardiovascular risk (DCVR) clinics have been established in both primary and secondary care sites in NHS Lothian during the past five years. An audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery at the clinics was conducted in order to evaluate practice and to standardize the pharmacists’ documentation of outcomes. Pharmaceutical care issues (PCI) and patient details were collected both prospectively and retrospectively from three DCVR clinics. The PCI`s were categorized according to a triangularised system consisting of multiple categories. These were ‘checks’, ‘changes’ (‘change in drug therapy process’ and ‘change in drug therapy’), ‘drug therapy problems’ and ‘quality assurance descriptors’ (‘timer perspective’ and ‘degree of change’). A verified medication assessment tool (MAT) for patients with chronic cardiovascular disease was applied to the patients from one of the clinics. The tool was used to quantify PCI`s and pharmacist actions that were centered on implementing or enforcing clinical guideline standards. A database was developed to be used as an assessment tool and to standardize the documentation of achievement of outcomes. Feedback on the audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery and the database was received from the DCVR clinic pharmacist at a focus group meeting.
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Micro RNA genes and their likely influence in rice (Oryza sativa L.) dynamic ...Open Access Research Paper
Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs molecules having approximately 18-25 nucleotides, they are present in both plants and animals genomes. MiRNAs have diverse spatial expression patterns and regulate various developmental metabolisms, stress responses and other physiological processes. The dynamic gene expression playing major roles in phenotypic differences in organisms are believed to be controlled by miRNAs. Mutations in regions of regulatory factors, such as miRNA genes or transcription factors (TF) necessitated by dynamic environmental factors or pathogen infections, have tremendous effects on structure and expression of genes. The resultant novel gene products presents potential explanations for constant evolving desirable traits that have long been bred using conventional means, biotechnology or genetic engineering. Rice grain quality, yield, disease tolerance, climate-resilience and palatability properties are not exceptional to miRN Asmutations effects. There are new insights courtesy of high-throughput sequencing and improved proteomic techniques that organisms’ complexity and adaptations are highly contributed by miRNAs containing regulatory networks. This article aims to expound on how rice miRNAs could be driving evolution of traits and highlight the latest miRNA research progress. Moreover, the review accentuates miRNAs grey areas to be addressed and gives recommendations for further studies.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
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Microbial Habitats
• These are found in just about every kind of habitat.
• Microbes are incredibly diverse thriving in environments from the very cold to the
extremely hot.
• They are also tolerant of many other conditions such as limited water availability high
salt content and low oxygen levels.
• Not every microbe can survive in all habitats.
Terrestrial Microbial Habitats
• Only one percent of microbes that live in soil have been identified.
• These organisms take part in the formation of soil and are essential components of their
ecosystems.
• Bacteria and fungi that live in soil feed mostly on organic matter such as other plants and
animals.
• These microbes are very sensitive to their local environment.
• Factors such as the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen the pH moisture and
temperature all affect the growth of microbes in the soil.
Aquatic Microbial Habitat
• Microbes live in both fresh and salt water.
• These organisms include microscopic plants and animals as well as bacteria fungi and
viruses.
• As with other microbes the ones that live in water are adapted to the specific conditions
of their environment.
• Habitats range from ocean water with an extremely high salt content to freshwater lakes
or rivers.
Microbial Habitats in Other Organisms
• Microbes also live on other organisms.
• As with the ones found on people these microbes can be harmful or beneficial to the
host.
• Example:
• Bacteria grow in nodules on the roots of pea and bean plants. These microbes convert
nitrogen from the air into a form that the plants can use.
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• In many ways animals and plants have evolved as habitats for the millions of microbes
that call them home.
Extreme Microbial Environments
• The microbes living in extreme conditions are called extremophiles.
• This literally means that they love the extreme conditions of their habitat.
• The extremophiles are so well adapted to their own environment.
• Some like the ones in hot springs need extreme temperatures to grow.
SYMBIOSIS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY
SYMBIOSIS
• The relationship in which one organism may depend on another for its survival.
Sometimes they need each other. This is called symbiosis.
EXAMPLES
• Photosynthetic plants and microbes provide oxygen that humans need to live.
• Trees offer shelter to other plants and animals.
• And many rely on other creatures as sources of food or nutrients
SYMBIOTIC MICROBES
• Often, especially with microbes, one organism lives inside another — the host.
• Microbial symbiosis occurs between two microbes. Microbes, however, form
associations with other types of organisms, including plants and animals.
• Bacteria have a long history of symbiotic relationships, and have evolved in conjunction
with their hosts. Other microbes, such as fungi and protists, also form symbiotic
relationships with other organisms.
• HOST- usually the LARGER member
• SYMBIONT- usually the SMALLER member
TYPES
MUTUALISM:-In this type of relationship, both partners benefit. E. coli synthesizes
vitamin K in the intestine in exchange the large intestine provides nutrients necessary for
survival of the microorganisms.
Example; E.Coli
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COMMENSALISM:-one organism is benefited and the other is unaffected by this type of
relationship.
They bring no benefit to the host and yet the microorganisms benefit greatly from the
environment they inhabit.
Example;
Staphylococcus on skin
PARASITISM:
• One organism benefits at the expense of the other all pathogens are parasites.
EXAMPLE:-
• Human parasites (e.g. Lice).
BACTERIAL SYMBIOSIS
• Bacteria form symbiotic relationships with many organisms, including humans.
• One example is the bacteria that live inside the human digestive system.
• These microbes break down food and produce vitamins that humans need. In return, the
bacteria benefit from the stable environment inside the intestines.
FUNGI AND PLANT
• Fungi and plants form mutually-beneficial relationships called mycorrhizal associations.
• The fungi increase the absorption of water and nutrients by the plants, and benefit from
the compounds produced by the plants during photosynthesis.
• The fungus also protects the roots from diseases. Some fungi form extensive networks
beneath the ground, and have been known to transport nutrients between plants and trees
in different locations.
LICHENS
• In this mutually-beneficial relationship, the fungus forms the body of the lichen — the
thallus. This structure attaches to the surface of a rock or tree.
• The fungal cells absorb water and nutrients from the surrounding environment. Algal
cells grow inside the cells of the fungus. The algal cells convert sunlight to chemical
energy through photosynthesis.
• This process benefits the fungus. In return, the algal cells are protected from the
environment.
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Biogeochemical cycles
What is Biogeochemical Cycles?
Biogeochemical Cycles or Nutrient cycles:
Is how elements, chemical compounds, and other
forms of matter are passed from one organism to
another and from one part of the biosphere to
another.
Types of Biogeochemical Cycle:
• Atmospheric- carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle
• Sedimentary - phosphorus cycle and Sulphur
cycle
Biogeochemical cycles
• Matter can neither be created or destroyed.
• A constant amount of matter in the
environment must be recycled.
• Microbes are essential in the conversion of nutrients into organic and usable formats.
• Microbes are essential in the conversion of nutrients into the inorganic form.
A. The carbon cycle
Carbon is a key ingredient of living tissue.
In the atmosphere, carbon is present as carbon dioxide gas,
CO2. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by,
Volcanic activity, respiration, Human activities
The Plants take in carbon dioxide and use the carbon to build carbohydrates during
photosynthesis.
The carbohydrates are passedalong food webs to animals and other consumers.
In the ocean, carbon is also found, along with calcium and oxygen, in calcium carbonate, which
is formed by many marine organism decomposition of organic matter.
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The Carbon Cycle
B. The nitrogen cycle
Microbes decompose proteins form dead cells and release amino acids.
Ammonia is liberated by microbial ammonification of amino acids.
Ammonia is
oxidized to produce
nitrates for energy
by nitrifying
bacteria.
Denitrifying bacteria
reduce nitrogen in
nitrates to molecular
nitrogen.
N2 is converted into
ammonia by
nitrogen fixing
bacteria
Ammonium and
nitrate are used by
bacteria and plants
to synthesize
amino acids.
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C. Sulfur cycle
Plants and certain microbes can use SO42- to make amino acids.
H2S is oxidized to form SO42-.
D. The Phosphorus Cycle
Inorganic phosphorus is
solubilized by microbial
acids.
Made available to plants and
other microbes Is soluble in
water
Combines with calcium in
calcium phosphate .
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Life Without Sunshine
• Primary producers in most ecosystems are photoautotroph's.
• Primary producers in deep ocean and endolithic communities are chemoautotrophic
bacteria.
Oxygenic photosynthesis
Algae, cyanobacteria, aerobic heterotrophs
– CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2
H2O is a source of electrons
– CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O
Aerobic respiration
An oxygenic photosynthesis
H2S oxidizers
CO2 + H2S CH2O + S + H2O
H2S is a source of electrons
Cyanobacteria
Tremendous ecological importance
in the C, O and N cycles.
Evolutionary relationship to plants.
Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll a,
carotenoids and phycobilins.
Cyanobacteria are very similar to
the chloroplasts of red algae
(Rhodophyta).
Several species of cyanobacteria
are symbionts of liverworts, ferns,
cycads, flagellated protozoa, and
algae.
Example:
There is also an example of a cyanobacterium as endosymbionts of plant cells.
BIOREMEDIATION
Intensification of agriculture and manufacturing industries has resulted in increased
release of a wide range of xenobiotic compounds to the environment.
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Excess loading of hazardous
waste has led to scarcity of clean water and disturbances of soil thus limiting crop
production.
Environment is formed by the combination of air , soil, water in the oceans, lakes etc.
Trees play an important role in the environment.
They may pollute or clean the environment.
AGENTS IN BIOREMEDIATION
In bioremediation, microorganisms are used to destroy or immobilize waste materials.
Bacteria
Fungi
Algae
Actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria)
DEFINITIONS OF BIOREMEDIATION
Use of living organisms (e.g., bacteria) to clean up oil spills or remove other pollutants
from soil, water, and waste water.“
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Compliance and Assurance
“clean-up of pollution from soil, groundwater, surface water and air, using biological,
usually microbiological processes” Source: Philip et al., 2001
GENERALLY
Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses microorganisms or their enzymes
to return the environment altered by contaminants to its original condition.
Microbes play its role by the activities of their enzymes, which helps in the destruction of
pollutants or their transformation to less harmful forms.
Microorganisms are very important in bioremediation because they have extraordinary
metabolic diversity.
Environmental problems
• Industrial wastes
• Loss of ecosystem/habitat
• Overfishing-depressed fish stock
• Soil erosion
• Fresh water supplies
• Infectious disease
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Environmental pollution Issues of most concern
1.Air pollution
2.Water pollution
3.Toxic and heavy metal pollution
4.Solid and hazardous waste
1.AIR POLLUTION
Major environmental problem in cities
Sources
• Vehicle emissions
• Industrial plants
• Power stations
• Oil refinery
• Domestic heating
• Cement plants
Gives rise to 3 other phenomena
• Acid rain
• Ozone depletion
• Global warming climatic change
Ozone
• A bluish reactive gas made up of 3 oxygen atoms
• 10-40km above the earth surface
• Protects life on earth from UV light
Problems ??
• Appearance of holes
• Holes created by gases CFC, halons, methyl bromide
• Effects excess UV skin burns, skin cancer, cataracts,
GLOBAL WARMING
• World is warming
• Cause emission of CO2 and other greenhouse gas
• Consequence Temperature change 1.1oF (0.6oC) but the effects are quite drastic
• Tree-eating wood beetles are likely to benefit from a warmer climate and reproduce in
ever-increasing numbers
2. WATER POLLUTION
Sources
• Municipal detergents / washing powder high in phosphates
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• Industrial toxic wastes and organic substances
• Agriculture fertilizers esp. nitrates
PESTICIDES
Problems with pesticides
• Only 0.1 reach targets the rest - 99 affects non-target organisms widely dispersed in the
environment
• 10 of 80,000 pesticides used are carcinogenic e.g. testicular cancer
• Highly toxic to aquatic life
AZODYES
Synthetic colorants
One of the oldest man-made chemicals
Applications in textiles, food, cosmetics, plastics, leather, paper, color photography,
pharmaceutical industries
AZODYES - Problems
Not easily degraded
About 10 of dyestuff does not bind to fibres during dyeing process released into the
environment accumulate in the biosphere.
Some are carcinogenic
3. TOXIC AND HEAVY METALS POLLUTION
What are heavy metals ???
Metallic chemicals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper and zinc that can be
harmful pollutants when they enter soil and water generally toxic in low concentrations to
plants and animals persist in the environment and bioaccumulate tend to be toxic
Heavy metal pollution
From extensive use in agriculture, chemical and industrial processes and waste disposal
Electronic wastes TV and computer monitors contain between 3-5 kg of lead.
Threat to human health and limit plant productivity heavy metal poisoning
BIOREMEDIATION
How to remediate restore polluted environment?
Use physical and chemical methods e.g.
dig up contaminated soils remove it to landfills
capping and containment
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use chemicals
Using living organisms to decontaminate polluted systems
Living organisms
1. Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Algae
Why bacteria ?
most common bioremediation microorganisms
Natures recyclers e.g. Carbon, Nitrogen cycle
Can degrade a variety of compounds as a result of million of years of evolution
With genetic engineering, can be tailored to degrade pollutants that we want
How do bacteria degrade pollutants ???
produce enzymes
break up toxic compounds to lesser or non-toxic
compounds
BIOREMEDIATION Current research
• HEAVY METALS
• PESTICIDES
• DYES
• DETERGENTS
• PLASTICS
• OILS HYDROCARBONS
TYPES OF
BIOREMEDIATION
Phytoremediation
describes the treatment
of environmental
problems through the
use of plants that
mitigate the
environmental problem
without the need to
excavate the
contaminant material
and dispose of it elsewhere.
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RHIZOREMEDIATION
Rhizoremediation, which is the most evolved process of bioremediation, involves the
removal of specific contaminants from contaminated sites by mutual interaction of plant
roots and suitable microbial flora.
PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION
Microorganisms use their enzymatic activity for the destruction of pollutants or their
transformation to less harmful forms.
Their enzymatic action on the contaminants of environment, break them into digestible
form and there microbes get energy by performing normal metabolism.
Here augmentation also involves.
BIOAUGMENTATION
Contaminant compounds are transformed by living organisms through reactions that take
place as a part of their metabolic processes.
Biodegradation of a compound is often a result of the actions of multiple organisms.
When microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance degradation we
have a process known as bioaugmentation.
Fundamentals of cleanup reaction
• Microbes can convert many chemicals into harmless compounds using cleanup
reaction.
• Aerobic or anaerobically.
• Both involve oxidation and reduction reactions.
• Oxidation involves the removal of one or more electrons.
• Reduction involves the addition of one or more electrons.
• Oxidizing agents gain electrons and reducing agents lose
electron.
• When both reaction occurs at a time, it will be redox reaction.
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What Types of Compounds Can Be Treated Biologically?
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Gasoline
Diesel Fuel
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
Creosote
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Chlorinated Aliphatics: trichloroethylene
Chlorinated Aromatics : PCB’s, Pentachlorophenol
Explosives
RDX, TNT
Inorganic via Reduction to a Lower Valence Causing
Precipitation
Uranium, Technicium
Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid
Ammonia or Nitrate/Nitrite
How Microbes Use the Contaminant
Primary substrate
Enough available to be the sole energy source
Secondary substrate
Provides energy, not available in high enough concentration
Co metabolic substrate
Fortuitous transformation of a compound by a microbe
Relying on some other primary substrate
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Role of EDTA in bioremediation
EDTA
Is a chemical agent which reduces the toxicity produced by the contaminants in the environment
specially in water.
For Example,
If the toxicity results from heavy metals, EDTA will be added to the waste and the effluent will
be tested again to determine if the toxicity has been acceptably reduced.
Methods of bioremediation
On the basis of removal and transportation of wastes for treatment there are basically two methods
Ex-situ (off-site) strategies
Excavation/pumping, followed by…
Landfill
Incineration
Chemical removal
In-situ (on-site) strategies
Immobilization (chemicals, wells, membranes)
Advantages of Bioremediation
• Can be highly specific
• Less expensive than excavation or incineration processes
• If mineralization occurs get complete degradation and clean up
• Does not transfer contaminants from one environment to another
• Uses a natural process
• Good public acceptance
• Process is simple
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Disadvantages to Bioremediation
• Not instantaneous.
• Often need to develop a system.
• Always need to test and optimize conditions empirically – not with computer models.
• May have inhibitors present.
• Compounds may not be in a biodegradable form – polymers, plastics.
Conclusion
• We should clean the environment including land ,soil, water etc. by using biological
methods in which bioremediation is very suitable.
• In bioremediation, microbes play important role by their enzymatic activity.
• They do normal metabolism and destroy the pollutants.
• We can purify the wastewater, polluted soil, do better crop production, better
variety of fruits.
• In this way it is economically important method.
Bioremediation is an attractive alternative to traditional physico-chemical techniques for
remediation of contaminated sites
• Cost effective
• Selectively degrade pollutants without damaging site indigenous flora and fauna
• Low-technology techniques
• High public acceptance
BUT STILL FRAUGHT WITH PROBLEMS
• Substrate and environmental variability
• Limited biodegradative potential and variability of naturally occurring microorganisms
• HOWEVER may be overcome by biomolecular engineering enhance bioremediation
programs
Dr. Kashif Bashir
Notes: M.PHIL (Microbiology), 2nd Semester
Chapter # 02
Date: 25th September, 2019
Made By Amjad Khan Afridi