Introduction,In some fungi ,true sexual cycle comprising of nuclear fusion and meiosis is absent.
These fungi derive the benefits of sexuality through a cycle know as parasexuaL cycle.
First Reported by- Gudio Pontecorvo and J.A.Roper(1952)
Parasexual cycle was reported in
Aspergillus nidulans,the imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans.
Since then parasexual cycle has been discovered not only in several members of Deutromycetes but also in fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
DEFINETION - Parasexuality is defined as a cycle in which Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis [Haploidization] take place in sequence but not at a specified time or at specified points in the life cycle of an organism.
Generally parasexual cycle occurs in those fungi in which true sexual cycle does not take place.
Parasexualcycle also know as Somatic recombination. PASEXUALITY ALSO REPORTED IN SOME ORGANISMS- Aspergillus nigar, Penicillium crysogenum, STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE - 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF HETEROKARYOSIS, 2) Formation of Heterozygous DIPLOIDS, 3) occasional mitotic crossing-over during multiplication of diploid nuclei, 4)occasional haplodization through aneuploidy , COMPARISION BETWEEN SEXUAL AND PARASEXUAL CYCLE, IMPORTANCE OF PARASEXUALITY, C0NCLUSION
@ cell cycle - mitosis and meiosis (mnusratgulbarga@gmail.com)nusratg1
Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth also take place. All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way to ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes.
In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division: a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
Introduction to biology by dr. martin otundo richardMartin Otundo
this document has given a detailed summary of an introduction to Biology as a subject of study in all the levels of education ranking in any given country to be used as reference material
The plasma membrane, also called the cell membrane, is the membrane found in all cells that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment. . The plasma membrane consists of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable. The plasma membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
Introduction,In some fungi ,true sexual cycle comprising of nuclear fusion and meiosis is absent.
These fungi derive the benefits of sexuality through a cycle know as parasexuaL cycle.
First Reported by- Gudio Pontecorvo and J.A.Roper(1952)
Parasexual cycle was reported in
Aspergillus nidulans,the imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans.
Since then parasexual cycle has been discovered not only in several members of Deutromycetes but also in fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
DEFINETION - Parasexuality is defined as a cycle in which Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis [Haploidization] take place in sequence but not at a specified time or at specified points in the life cycle of an organism.
Generally parasexual cycle occurs in those fungi in which true sexual cycle does not take place.
Parasexualcycle also know as Somatic recombination. PASEXUALITY ALSO REPORTED IN SOME ORGANISMS- Aspergillus nigar, Penicillium crysogenum, STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE - 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF HETEROKARYOSIS, 2) Formation of Heterozygous DIPLOIDS, 3) occasional mitotic crossing-over during multiplication of diploid nuclei, 4)occasional haplodization through aneuploidy , COMPARISION BETWEEN SEXUAL AND PARASEXUAL CYCLE, IMPORTANCE OF PARASEXUALITY, C0NCLUSION
@ cell cycle - mitosis and meiosis (mnusratgulbarga@gmail.com)nusratg1
Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth also take place. All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way to ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes.
In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division: a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
Introduction to biology by dr. martin otundo richardMartin Otundo
this document has given a detailed summary of an introduction to Biology as a subject of study in all the levels of education ranking in any given country to be used as reference material
The plasma membrane, also called the cell membrane, is the membrane found in all cells that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment. . The plasma membrane consists of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable. The plasma membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
2. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structurehabtamu biazin
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
All living cells can be classified as
Prokaryotes cells: pre-nucleus
the Greek words pro (before) and karyon (nucleus).
All prokaryotes are:
single-celled organisms and all are bacteria.
Microscopic
cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed structures.
2. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structurehabtamu biazin
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
All living cells can be classified as
Prokaryotes cells: pre-nucleus
the Greek words pro (before) and karyon (nucleus).
All prokaryotes are:
single-celled organisms and all are bacteria.
Microscopic
cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed structures.
– Male and female gametes fuse together during fertilization to form a zygote. The chromosome number is halved during the formation of gametes by the process of meiosis. This maintains the chromosome number generations after generations. Meiosis leads to genetic diversity which is very essential for evolution.
The slides contain all about meiosis. in this slides i collected all information about meiosis. which is useful for everyone.
so watch these slides and comment for any problems.
thanks
Ques-1Part-a Mitosis it is a somatic cell division in an organi.pdfsutharbharat59
Ques-1:
Part-a: Mitosis: it is a somatic cell division in an organism & this division is useful to maintain
body growth
Part-b: Meiosis: it is the reproductive reduction cell division & it is useful to produce gametes for
fertilization finally to generate a mature embryo
Part-c: cytokinesis: It is defined as the process of division of cytoplasm during cell division
either in mitosis or meiosis & this is useful for carrying cell organelles
Part-d: chromosome: it is the hereditary material that carries genomic information for gene
expression & useful for inheritance of parental traits to offspring
Mitosis ---> somatic cell division & produces two identical daughter cells with equal number of
chromosomes (cytokinesis & karyokinesis).
Meiosis ----> a reduction division occurs in reproductive germ cells in which allosomes
determine sex determination finally generates half of the chromosomes in daughter cells
Part-a: Mitosis: it is a somatic cell division in an organism & this division is useful to maintain
body growth
Part-b: Meiosis: it is the reproductive reduction cell division & it is useful to produce gametes for
fertilization finally to generate a mature embryo
Part-c: cytokinesis: It is defined as the process of division of cytoplasm during cell division
either in mitosis or meiosis & this is useful for carrying cell organelles
Part-d: chromosome: it is the hereditary material that carries genomic information for gene
expression & useful for inheritance of parental traits to offspring
Cell plate is absent during animal cell division instead a complete cleavage of the cells during
division can be observed in animal cells. Cell plate formation during cell division observed only
in plants.
Haploid cells (n) are normally produced by reduction division of meiosis from diploid parent
cells (2n). This type of division occurs in germ cells of male and female species. The
chromosomes of the diploid germ cell undergo reduction in meiosis I and generate half of the
chromosomes when compared to parent diploid cell.
Meiosis division in a reproductive cell often results in four haploid cells with only single set of
chromosomes.
Meiosis-I prophase-I In this process double stranded homologous chromosomes line up each
other, and result in forming a tetrad; this is termed as Synapsis.
Terminal chaismata hold the homologous chromosomes together in metaphase I finally these are
going to align on the metaphase plate. Synapsis allows homologous chromosomes to travel to the
center by forming spindle formation through microtubules attaching to the centromeres finally to
the opposite poles of the cell. Later, crossing over takes place to exchanges paternal and maternal
genes to form tetrad where genetic variation occurs. Crossing over takes place to exchange equal
amounts of DNA generates genetic variability in prophase -I of meiosis.
Crossing over occurs in which lined up chromosomal ends exchange genetic information by
switching their places. Crossing over can un.
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Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
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Meiosis converted(1)
1. Welcome to Meiosis Cell Division
By
N.Sannigrahi, Associate Professor of Botany
Nistarini College, Purulia (W.B) India
2. MEIOSIS-MEMORY LANE
Meiosis-a reduction cell division occur in the reproductive cells
of plants and animals(Microspore mother cells of anther &
Megaspore mother cells of Carpel) where the daughter cells
possess half of the chromosome number of the parents cells
quantitatively and bear some sorts of variation qualitatively.
MILESTONES:
1887: Weismann-Proposed this at the time of gametogenesis
1887: V. Benedin -Reported the reduction of chromosome
number
1888: E.A. Strasburger -Detail study
1900: Sutton & Winiwater -Detail analysis
1905- Farmer & Moore coined the term Meiosis
4. MEIOSIS AT A GLANCE
MEIOSIS divided into two main phases:
A. Meiosis I or division I( Reduction) consisting of 4 stages-
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I & Telophase I
Prophase I, the longest & complex process subdivided into five
sub stages- Leptotene( Leptonema), Zygotene, Pachytene,
Diplotene & Diakinesis
Meiosis II (Equational) Comprising of 4 stages- Prophase
II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II & Telophase II
Before meiosis, an Interphase is there which consists of G1, S
and G2 where the DNA replication along with the synthesis of
the desired proteins and other enzymes synthesis take place as
usual like that of Mitosis. Thus two divisions but one
interphase- “God never plays dice”.
7. PROPHASE I SUB STAGES
(a)Leptotene: The diploid nucleus enlarges in volume. The chromosomes
appear as long, thin and single threads which soon begin to coil. Several
small, bead-like granules (chromomeres) appear in each thread-like
chromosome.
(b) Zygotene:
The homologous chromosomes come together, get themselves arranged side
by side, and form pairs or bivalents. This pairing is also called synapsis. The
pairing chromosomes soon begin to shorten and get thickened, but there is
no actual fusion.
(c) Pachytene:
In this stage the chromosomes become shorter, thicker and get
splitted into chromatids linked at the centromeres. From a pair
of each homologous chromosomes are thus produced four
chromatids. Identification of the homologous chromosomes can
be made in pachytene, which is a long stage of prophase I.
8. PROPHASE I SUB STAGES
d) Diplotene:
Centromeres of paired chromosomes move away from each
other. This movement is because of the development of some
repulsive force between the homologous chromosomes.
However, the homologous chromosomes remain connected at
one or more points called chiasmata.
The physical exchange of genetic material takes place at each
chiasma under the process called crossing over. Further coiling
and shortening of chromosomes is also seen in late stage of
diplotene which soon changes into diakinesis.
9. PROPHASE I SUB STAGES
e) Diakinesis:
In this last stage of the first meiotic prophase the chromosomes
are shortest and thickest. The nuclear membrane starts
disintegrating. The nucleolus also disintegrates and disappears .
The chromosomes bivalents move towards the periphery, of the
nucleus and remain connected only at the points of chiasmata.
The chromosomes are finally released into the cytoplasm.
After the completion of the prophase I, the scheduled events of
the meiotic I happens that comprises of Metaphase I, Anaphase
I and Telophase I and the characters of the stages are as stated
below.
11. MEIOTIC I SUB STAGES
2. Metaphase I:
Two major events of metaphase I include complete
disintegration of nuclear membrane and the formation of
spindle. All the chromosomes, each along with their two
chromatids, move to the equatorial region of the newly formed
spindle.
Differing from the metaphase stage of mitosis, the centromeres
of chromosome pairs in metaphase stage of meiosis I become
attached with the spindle fibres near the equatorial region. The
centromeres remain clearly apart from each other and face the
opposite poles while the arms of the chromosome pairs lie
towards the equator.
12. MEIOTIC I SUB STAGES
3. Anaphase I:
There is first a repulsion and then movement of the two
centromeres of the homologous chromosomes towards the
opposite poles of the spindle in anaphase I. A centromere
carries either a paternal or a maternal chromosome to one
pole but not both the chromosomes. This actually reduces
the chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n),
which is the main feature of meiosis of reduction division.
4. Telophase I:
A nuclear membrane develops around each group of
homologous chromosomes present on the two opposite
poles in the form of a compact group in telophase I. The
nucleolus reappears. Both the so formed daughter nuclei
contain haploid number (n) of chromosomes, and each
chromosome contains a pair of chromatids
14. MEIOTIC II STAGES
1. Prophase II:
The chromosomes split into chromatids in both the haploid
nuclei and cells formed after meiosis division I. The splitted
chromatids remain connected only at the centromeres. The
chromosomes start coiling and become shorter and thicker. The
nuclear membrane and nucleolus start disintegrating and some
spindle fibres also start appearing.
2. Metaphase II:
The chromosomes get arranged in an equatorial position in the
newly-formed spindle. Very soon, the chromosome pair
separates, of which each contains its own centromere. This is a
very short phase of meiosis division II.
15. MEIOTIC II STAGES
3. Anaphase II:
In this phase, the two sister chromosomes of each pair start to
move towards the opposite poles of the spindle. They are being
drawn towards the opposite poles by their centromeres.
4. Telophase II:
Each polar group of chromosomes get enveloped by a
nuclear membrane, and there is the reappearance of
nucleolus. Four cells are formed by cytokinesis, and the
nucleus in all these so formed four young cells contain
haploid number (n) of chromosomes. In this way, four
haploid cells are resulted from a single diploid cell in the
process of meiosis.
18. IMPORTANT OUTCOME
Meiosis-the most important and critical but successful avenue
for sexual reproduction of all diploid organisms. It is the
mechanism by which the diploid amount of genetic information
is reduced to the haploid amount. In animals, meiosis leads to
the formation of gametes whereas in plants haploid
spores(microspores & megaspores) are produced which in turn
lead to the formation of gametes. Not only that, as a part of the
game of the crossing over, the haploid cells potentially contain
either the paternal or the maternal representative of every
homologous pair of chromosomes and by the process,
reshuffling of the alleles between the maternal and maternal
members result the great amount of genetic variation in the
producing gametes supposed to undertake in the process of
fertilization to bring F1,Thus, it is novel technique in the
domain of reproductive biology.
19. SIGNIFICANCE
1. Constancy of species specific chromosome number from
generation to generation,
2. Crossing over brings new combination of traits to develop
variation that accelerates the organic evolution and creation of
new species in the passage of evolution,
3. Segregation and Independent assortment of the non-linked
genes,
4. Essential for sexual reproduction that enables the fusion of
two haploid gametes to form Zygote(2n),
5. An avenue for the alternation of generation,
6. Chromosomal variation by aneuploidy and Polyploidy &
chromosomal aberrations due to non-disjunction during
anaphase I or II and failure of cytokinesis.
