The document summarizes key concepts about solutions from chapter 6, including:
1) It defines solutions, solutes, solvents, and aqueous solutions.
2) It describes general properties of solutions like transparency, electrolytes vs nonelectrolytes, and how volumes are non-additive.
3) It discusses concentration units like molarity, calculates concentrations from masses and volumes, and explains dilution.
4) It covers colligative properties like vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure that depend on solute concentration.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to solutions and solubility, including:
1) Key terms like solvent, solute, concentration, and their relationships as demonstrated through examples of dissolving salt in water.
2) How temperature and concentration affect solubility, and how to read solubility curves. Exothermic and endothermic processes are discussed in relation to enthalpy of solution.
3) Molarity calculations including determining molarity from mass, calculating moles from molarity and volume, and dilution. Net ionic equations and solubility rules are also covered.
4) Colligative properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are explained in terms of vapor pressure
This document provides an overview of biophysics concepts including solutions, biomolecules, and isotopes. It defines solutions as homogeneous mixtures and classifies them as standard or non-standard. It describes crystalloids and colloids, distinguishing their properties such as size, permeability, and osmotic pressure. Isotopes are defined as atoms of the same element with different atomic weights. Biomedical uses of isotopes include diagnosis using radioisotopes and measurement of bodily processes. Radiation hazards from isotopes include immediate effects like bone marrow depression and delayed effects like carcinogenesis.
This document discusses types of mixtures and solutions. It defines homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent, forming a single phase. Factors that determine solubility, such as temperature and pressure, are described. The document outlines concentration units like molarity, molality, and percent composition. It also discusses solution processes and the energetics of dissolution. Key topics covered include saturation points, Henry's law, and separation techniques like ultrafiltration.
Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent, usually 100g. A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute, while an unsaturated solution does not. The solubility of most solids increases with temperature, while the solubility of most gases decreases with temperature. High temperatures can cause carbonated drinks to burst or fish to die due to decreased gas solubility in water.
This document discusses key terms and concepts related to solutions, including:
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Important terms include solute, solvent, solubility, saturated solution, unsaturated solution, and supersaturated solution.
- There are various methods to describe the concentration of a solution, including molarity, mass percent, mole fraction, and molality.
- Factors that affect solubility include molecular structure, temperature, and pressure. Solubility generally increases with temperature and pressure.
- Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles and include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. These can be calculated using
Colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles and include boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and vapor pressure lowering. Boiling points are elevated because solvent shells form around solute particles, reducing the number of solvent molecules that can vaporize. Freezing points are lowered because solutes disrupt solvent structure, requiring more kinetic energy to be withdrawn for solidification. Solubility increases with increased pressure and temperature. Molarity provides the exact number of moles of solute per liter of solution and is a quantitative measure of concentration.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to solutions and solubility. It defines solutions, solutes, and solvents. It discusses factors that affect solubility such as temperature, concentration in terms of molarity and percent by volume/mass. It also covers colligative properties, colloids, osmosis, and their relationships to cell physiology.
This chapter discusses properties of solutions and concentration. It covers how temperature, pressure, surface area, and particle size affect solubility and dissolution rates. Methods of concentration like molarity, percent by mass/volume, and molality are defined. Colligative properties like vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression that depend on the number of particles in solution are also explained. The chapter provides examples of calculating concentrations and colligative properties of solutions.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to solutions and solubility, including:
1) Key terms like solvent, solute, concentration, and their relationships as demonstrated through examples of dissolving salt in water.
2) How temperature and concentration affect solubility, and how to read solubility curves. Exothermic and endothermic processes are discussed in relation to enthalpy of solution.
3) Molarity calculations including determining molarity from mass, calculating moles from molarity and volume, and dilution. Net ionic equations and solubility rules are also covered.
4) Colligative properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are explained in terms of vapor pressure
This document provides an overview of biophysics concepts including solutions, biomolecules, and isotopes. It defines solutions as homogeneous mixtures and classifies them as standard or non-standard. It describes crystalloids and colloids, distinguishing their properties such as size, permeability, and osmotic pressure. Isotopes are defined as atoms of the same element with different atomic weights. Biomedical uses of isotopes include diagnosis using radioisotopes and measurement of bodily processes. Radiation hazards from isotopes include immediate effects like bone marrow depression and delayed effects like carcinogenesis.
This document discusses types of mixtures and solutions. It defines homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent, forming a single phase. Factors that determine solubility, such as temperature and pressure, are described. The document outlines concentration units like molarity, molality, and percent composition. It also discusses solution processes and the energetics of dissolution. Key topics covered include saturation points, Henry's law, and separation techniques like ultrafiltration.
Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent, usually 100g. A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute, while an unsaturated solution does not. The solubility of most solids increases with temperature, while the solubility of most gases decreases with temperature. High temperatures can cause carbonated drinks to burst or fish to die due to decreased gas solubility in water.
This document discusses key terms and concepts related to solutions, including:
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Important terms include solute, solvent, solubility, saturated solution, unsaturated solution, and supersaturated solution.
- There are various methods to describe the concentration of a solution, including molarity, mass percent, mole fraction, and molality.
- Factors that affect solubility include molecular structure, temperature, and pressure. Solubility generally increases with temperature and pressure.
- Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles and include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. These can be calculated using
Colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles and include boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and vapor pressure lowering. Boiling points are elevated because solvent shells form around solute particles, reducing the number of solvent molecules that can vaporize. Freezing points are lowered because solutes disrupt solvent structure, requiring more kinetic energy to be withdrawn for solidification. Solubility increases with increased pressure and temperature. Molarity provides the exact number of moles of solute per liter of solution and is a quantitative measure of concentration.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to solutions and solubility. It defines solutions, solutes, and solvents. It discusses factors that affect solubility such as temperature, concentration in terms of molarity and percent by volume/mass. It also covers colligative properties, colloids, osmosis, and their relationships to cell physiology.
This chapter discusses properties of solutions and concentration. It covers how temperature, pressure, surface area, and particle size affect solubility and dissolution rates. Methods of concentration like molarity, percent by mass/volume, and molality are defined. Colligative properties like vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression that depend on the number of particles in solution are also explained. The chapter provides examples of calculating concentrations and colligative properties of solutions.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of a solute dissolved in a solvent. A solution is formed through solvation, where solvent particles surround solute particles and pull them away from each other. The solubility of a substance depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and the properties of the solute and solvent. Increasing temperature, pressure, surface area, or agitation can increase solubility and the rate of solvation. Concentration refers to the ratio of solute to solvent and affects properties like reaction rates.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and solubility. It explains that a solution is a homogeneous mixture of particles smaller than 2 nm, while a colloid contains larger particles up to 500 nm. A solute is the dissolved substance, and solvent is the major component. The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution is called the solubility. Solubility depends on temperature and pressure, with most substances being more soluble at higher temperatures and gases more soluble under higher pressure. Common ions and their solubilities in water are also discussed.
The solubility curves provide the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a specified amount of solvent (usually 100g) at a given temperature.
1) According to the NH4Cl curve, the maximum amount that can dissolve in 100g of water at 40°C is ~45g. Since 50g is dissolving, it is supersaturated.
2) The KNO3 curve shows that ~65g can dissolve in 100g of water at 70°C. Since we have 50g of water, we can scale down proportionally to find the maximum amount of KNO3 is ~32.5g.
3) The NaNO3 curve shows that 115g dissolves in 100g of water
This document provides an overview of solutions and key solution concepts in chemistry. It defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances distributed at the molecular or ionic level. The main components of a solution are the solute, which is the dissolved substance, and the solvent, which does the dissolving and is present in greater quantity. The document discusses different types of solutions, factors that influence solubility such as polarity and temperature, and phenomena involving solutions like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.
Solubility is defined as the amount of solute that can dissolve in a specific amount of solvent at a given temperature. Solubility curves on a graph show the saturation point where any additional solute will not dissolve and instead form crystals. A saturated solution contains all the solute it can hold at a given temperature, while an unsaturated solution can dissolve more solute. A supersaturated solution contains more solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature and is unstable.
Discusses the properties of electrolytes and non electrolytes. Also freezing point depression and boiling point elevations. Solved problems are included.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
* Given: 0.85 g of gas dissolves in 1 L of water at 4 atm
* Let's call the amount that will dissolve at 1 atm = S1
* Using Henry's Law: S1/S2 = P1/P2
* S2 is the amount we want to find at 1 atm
* P1 = 4 atm
* P2 = 1 atm
* S1 = 0.85 g
* Substitute into Henry's Law equation:
* 0.85/S2 = 4/1
* S2 = 0.85 * 1/4 = 0.2125 g
Therefore, the amount that will dissolve in 1 L of water at 1 atm is
This document discusses solubility and solutions. It defines solubility as the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a specific amount of solvent. It describes unsaturated solutions as containing less than the maximum amount of solute, saturated solutions as containing the maximum amount of solute, and supersaturated solutions as unstable solutions containing more solute than the solubility. It also states that for most solids, solubility increases with temperature, while for gases it decreases with temperature. Solubility of gases is also directly related to gas pressure above the liquid according to Henry's Law.
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
Water is called the universal solvent because it dissolves many solutes. Ionic compounds dissolve through attractions between water molecules and ions, separating the crystal lattice. Molecular compounds dissolve as water molecules arrange around the solute according to polarity. Solubility depends on temperature and chemistry - polar solvents dissolve polar solutes. Adding solute increases the boiling point and decreases the freezing point of solvents by interfering with molecular arrangements.
1. A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined and where each substance retains its own chemical properties.
2. There are three main types of mixtures: homogeneous mixtures, heterogeneous mixtures, and colloids. Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout while heterogeneous mixtures have visually distinct components.
3. Important homogeneous mixtures include solutions, where a solute is evenly dissolved in a solvent, and alloys, which are solid solutions of metals. Heterogeneous mixtures include suspensions, where a liquid contains large undissolved particles.
Matter is seen in variety of shape, texture, sizes and colours. The matter has physical and chemical characteristics which defines its category. In this chapter we will study about characteristics of mixtures and its types, how they are different from pure substances, colloids, suspensions and solutions, separation techniques for components of mixtures and their commercial use, physical and chemical changes, metals, non metals and metalloids, elements and compounds.
A solution is formed when a solute dissolves completely and uniformly throughout a solvent. There are three main types of solutions: gaseous solutions where gases are dissolved in other gases; liquid solutions where solids, liquids or gases are dissolved in liquids; and solid solutions where solids are dissolved in other solids. The solubility of a solution depends on the temperature - as temperature increases, more solute can typically dissolve.
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The component present in smaller amounts is the solute, while the component present in larger amounts is the solvent.
- Factors like temperature, pressure, and whether substances are polar/nonpolar affect solubility. Generally, solubility increases with temperature but decreases for gases.
- A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute dissolvable under a given set of conditions, while an unsaturated solution contains less. A supersaturated solution contains more solute than normally possible.
This document discusses solutions, colloids, and suspensions. It defines solutions as formed from a solvent and solute that contain small particles that do not separate or scatter light. There are three types of solutions: unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated. Colloids have medium sized particles that cannot be filtered but can be separated by semipermeable membranes. Examples include fog, milk, and blood plasma. They scatter light, known as the Tyndall effect. Suspensions have very large particles that settle out and can be filtered, like particles of mud in water.
This document discusses solutions and their properties. It defines solutions as homogeneous mixtures of particles made up of a solute dissolved in a solvent. It describes the different types of solutions and factors that affect solubility, such as temperature, molecular size, and polarity. It also discusses concentration in terms of molarity, mass percentage, and volume percentage. Finally, it covers colligative properties of solutions like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.
The document discusses factors that affect solution formation such as temperature, surface area, agitation, and pressure. It describes different types of solutions including unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated solutions. It also explains solubility curves, how they are used to determine the solubility of a substance at a given temperature, and how to interpret saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated points on the curve.
This document defines key concepts related to solutions, including:
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solvent and one or more solutes. Common solvents are water.
- The process of dissolving a solute involves the solute and solvent particles separating and the solvent surrounding and solvating the solute particles. This process can be endothermic or exothermic.
- Solubility depends on properties of the solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure. Solubility curves show how solubility changes with temperature. Saturation occurs when a solution contains the maximum amount of solute possible.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and solubility. It explains that a solution is a homogeneous mixture of particles smaller than 2 nm, while a colloid contains larger particles up to 500 nm. A solute is the dissolved substance, and solvent is the major component. The document also discusses saturated, supersaturated and unsaturated solutions, and how temperature and pressure can affect solubility. Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve per unit of solvent. Common ions and their solubility in water are also described.
This document summarizes key concepts about solutions from Chapter 6. It defines terms like solute, solvent, aqueous solutions, and discusses different types of solutions like liquids, solids, and gases. It then covers general properties of solutions like clarity and color. Specific topics discussed include concentration in terms of mass, moles, and equivalents. Colligative properties like vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure are explained. The importance of water as a universal solvent is also highlighted.
This document discusses the solubility of drugs. It defines solubility both quantitatively as the concentration of a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a homogeneous solution, and qualitatively as the spontaneous interaction of substances to form a molecular dispersion. It describes key terms like solute, solvent, saturated and unsaturated solutions. It also discusses various quantitative and qualitative expressions used to describe solubility. Finally, it outlines several factors that can influence the solubility of a substance, such as temperature, nature of the solute and solvent, pressure, pH, particle size, molecular structure, and presence of solubilizing agents.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of a solute dissolved in a solvent. A solution is formed through solvation, where solvent particles surround solute particles and pull them away from each other. The solubility of a substance depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and the properties of the solute and solvent. Increasing temperature, pressure, surface area, or agitation can increase solubility and the rate of solvation. Concentration refers to the ratio of solute to solvent and affects properties like reaction rates.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and solubility. It explains that a solution is a homogeneous mixture of particles smaller than 2 nm, while a colloid contains larger particles up to 500 nm. A solute is the dissolved substance, and solvent is the major component. The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution is called the solubility. Solubility depends on temperature and pressure, with most substances being more soluble at higher temperatures and gases more soluble under higher pressure. Common ions and their solubilities in water are also discussed.
The solubility curves provide the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a specified amount of solvent (usually 100g) at a given temperature.
1) According to the NH4Cl curve, the maximum amount that can dissolve in 100g of water at 40°C is ~45g. Since 50g is dissolving, it is supersaturated.
2) The KNO3 curve shows that ~65g can dissolve in 100g of water at 70°C. Since we have 50g of water, we can scale down proportionally to find the maximum amount of KNO3 is ~32.5g.
3) The NaNO3 curve shows that 115g dissolves in 100g of water
This document provides an overview of solutions and key solution concepts in chemistry. It defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances distributed at the molecular or ionic level. The main components of a solution are the solute, which is the dissolved substance, and the solvent, which does the dissolving and is present in greater quantity. The document discusses different types of solutions, factors that influence solubility such as polarity and temperature, and phenomena involving solutions like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.
Solubility is defined as the amount of solute that can dissolve in a specific amount of solvent at a given temperature. Solubility curves on a graph show the saturation point where any additional solute will not dissolve and instead form crystals. A saturated solution contains all the solute it can hold at a given temperature, while an unsaturated solution can dissolve more solute. A supersaturated solution contains more solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature and is unstable.
Discusses the properties of electrolytes and non electrolytes. Also freezing point depression and boiling point elevations. Solved problems are included.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
* Given: 0.85 g of gas dissolves in 1 L of water at 4 atm
* Let's call the amount that will dissolve at 1 atm = S1
* Using Henry's Law: S1/S2 = P1/P2
* S2 is the amount we want to find at 1 atm
* P1 = 4 atm
* P2 = 1 atm
* S1 = 0.85 g
* Substitute into Henry's Law equation:
* 0.85/S2 = 4/1
* S2 = 0.85 * 1/4 = 0.2125 g
Therefore, the amount that will dissolve in 1 L of water at 1 atm is
This document discusses solubility and solutions. It defines solubility as the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a specific amount of solvent. It describes unsaturated solutions as containing less than the maximum amount of solute, saturated solutions as containing the maximum amount of solute, and supersaturated solutions as unstable solutions containing more solute than the solubility. It also states that for most solids, solubility increases with temperature, while for gases it decreases with temperature. Solubility of gases is also directly related to gas pressure above the liquid according to Henry's Law.
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
Water is called the universal solvent because it dissolves many solutes. Ionic compounds dissolve through attractions between water molecules and ions, separating the crystal lattice. Molecular compounds dissolve as water molecules arrange around the solute according to polarity. Solubility depends on temperature and chemistry - polar solvents dissolve polar solutes. Adding solute increases the boiling point and decreases the freezing point of solvents by interfering with molecular arrangements.
1. A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined and where each substance retains its own chemical properties.
2. There are three main types of mixtures: homogeneous mixtures, heterogeneous mixtures, and colloids. Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout while heterogeneous mixtures have visually distinct components.
3. Important homogeneous mixtures include solutions, where a solute is evenly dissolved in a solvent, and alloys, which are solid solutions of metals. Heterogeneous mixtures include suspensions, where a liquid contains large undissolved particles.
Matter is seen in variety of shape, texture, sizes and colours. The matter has physical and chemical characteristics which defines its category. In this chapter we will study about characteristics of mixtures and its types, how they are different from pure substances, colloids, suspensions and solutions, separation techniques for components of mixtures and their commercial use, physical and chemical changes, metals, non metals and metalloids, elements and compounds.
A solution is formed when a solute dissolves completely and uniformly throughout a solvent. There are three main types of solutions: gaseous solutions where gases are dissolved in other gases; liquid solutions where solids, liquids or gases are dissolved in liquids; and solid solutions where solids are dissolved in other solids. The solubility of a solution depends on the temperature - as temperature increases, more solute can typically dissolve.
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The component present in smaller amounts is the solute, while the component present in larger amounts is the solvent.
- Factors like temperature, pressure, and whether substances are polar/nonpolar affect solubility. Generally, solubility increases with temperature but decreases for gases.
- A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute dissolvable under a given set of conditions, while an unsaturated solution contains less. A supersaturated solution contains more solute than normally possible.
This document discusses solutions, colloids, and suspensions. It defines solutions as formed from a solvent and solute that contain small particles that do not separate or scatter light. There are three types of solutions: unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated. Colloids have medium sized particles that cannot be filtered but can be separated by semipermeable membranes. Examples include fog, milk, and blood plasma. They scatter light, known as the Tyndall effect. Suspensions have very large particles that settle out and can be filtered, like particles of mud in water.
This document discusses solutions and their properties. It defines solutions as homogeneous mixtures of particles made up of a solute dissolved in a solvent. It describes the different types of solutions and factors that affect solubility, such as temperature, molecular size, and polarity. It also discusses concentration in terms of molarity, mass percentage, and volume percentage. Finally, it covers colligative properties of solutions like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.
The document discusses factors that affect solution formation such as temperature, surface area, agitation, and pressure. It describes different types of solutions including unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated solutions. It also explains solubility curves, how they are used to determine the solubility of a substance at a given temperature, and how to interpret saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated points on the curve.
This document defines key concepts related to solutions, including:
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solvent and one or more solutes. Common solvents are water.
- The process of dissolving a solute involves the solute and solvent particles separating and the solvent surrounding and solvating the solute particles. This process can be endothermic or exothermic.
- Solubility depends on properties of the solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure. Solubility curves show how solubility changes with temperature. Saturation occurs when a solution contains the maximum amount of solute possible.
This document defines key terms related to solutions and solubility. It explains that a solution is a homogeneous mixture of particles smaller than 2 nm, while a colloid contains larger particles up to 500 nm. A solute is the dissolved substance, and solvent is the major component. The document also discusses saturated, supersaturated and unsaturated solutions, and how temperature and pressure can affect solubility. Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve per unit of solvent. Common ions and their solubility in water are also described.
This document summarizes key concepts about solutions from Chapter 6. It defines terms like solute, solvent, aqueous solutions, and discusses different types of solutions like liquids, solids, and gases. It then covers general properties of solutions like clarity and color. Specific topics discussed include concentration in terms of mass, moles, and equivalents. Colligative properties like vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure are explained. The importance of water as a universal solvent is also highlighted.
This document discusses the solubility of drugs. It defines solubility both quantitatively as the concentration of a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a homogeneous solution, and qualitatively as the spontaneous interaction of substances to form a molecular dispersion. It describes key terms like solute, solvent, saturated and unsaturated solutions. It also discusses various quantitative and qualitative expressions used to describe solubility. Finally, it outlines several factors that can influence the solubility of a substance, such as temperature, nature of the solute and solvent, pressure, pH, particle size, molecular structure, and presence of solubilizing agents.
This document discusses the solubility of drugs. It defines solubility both quantitatively as the concentration of a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a homogeneous solution, and qualitatively as the spontaneous interaction of substances to form a molecular dispersion. It describes key terms like solute, solvent, saturated and unsaturated solutions. It also discusses various quantitative and qualitative expressions used to describe solubility. Finally, it outlines several factors that can influence the solubility of a substance, such as temperature, nature of the solute and solvent, pressure, pH, particle size, molecular structure, and presence of solubilizing agents.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, where the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent. The solubility of a solute is dependent on temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solute and solvent. Solubility is expressed as the maximum grams of solute that will dissolve per 100 grams of solvent. Colligative properties, such as boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, depend only on the number of solute particles and not their identity.
- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, where the solute dissolves evenly throughout the solvent. The solute is the dissolved substance while the solvent is the dispersing medium.
- The solubility of a substance refers to the maximum amount that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a certain temperature and pressure. Solubility curves graphically represent solubility.
- Factors like temperature, pressure, and amount of solute already dissolved can impact the rate at which a substance dissolves or its solubility. A saturated solution contains as much solute as can dissolve whereas an unsaturated solution can dissolve more and a supersaturated solution contains more than expected.
solution, in chemistry, a homogenous mixture of two or more substances in relative amounts that can be varied continuously up to what is called the limit of solubility. The term solution is commonly applied to the liquid state of matter, but solutions of gases and solids are possible. Air, for example, is a solution consisting chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen with trace amounts of several other gases, and brass is a solution composed of copper and zinc.
A brief treatment of solutions follows. For full treatment, see liquid: Solutions and solubilities.
Introduction of solubilty, solubility expression, solute solvent interaction.pdfShubhrat Maheshwari
This document discusses the solubility of drugs, including definitions and terms related to solubility. It defines solubility as the concentration of a substance that dissolves in a given volume of solvent at a certain temperature. Solubility depends on properties of the solvent and solute as well as temperature, pressure, and pH. The document also discusses quantitative and descriptive expressions of solubility, such as molarity and mole fraction. Finally, it examines the mechanisms of solute-solvent interactions, including factors like polarity, hydrogen bonding, and relative strengths of solvent-solvent, solute-solute, and solvent-solute interactions.
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. For a solution to form, the solute and solvent molecules must interact favorably through intermolecular forces like ion-dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, or dispersion forces. The solubility of a substance is affected by temperature, pressure, and how well the solute and solvent "like" each other. Solutions exhibit colligative properties like lowering of vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression that depend only on the number of solute particles and not their identity. Osmosis occurs when a semipermeable membrane separates solutions of different solute concentrations, causing net water movement from the lower to higher concentration side.
Q1C2L1 Types of Solutions general chemistry 2.pptxMAHAZELTEOLOGO3
This document discusses different types of mixtures including homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Homogeneous mixtures are solutions that are evenly distributed while heterogeneous mixtures are not evenly distributed. Heterogeneous mixtures include suspensions, where particles settle out, and colloids, where particles are dispersed but do not settle out. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent where the components are evenly mixed on an atomic scale.
The document discusses various properties of solutions including the different states that solutions can exist in, components and relationships in solutions, energy changes during the formation of solutions, factors that affect solubility such as polarity, pressure, and temperature, and colligative properties which are properties that depend only on the number of solute particles and not their type. It also covers topics such as vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
The document discusses different types of mixtures and solutions. It defines a solution as a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Solutions are classified as true solutions, colloidal dispersions, or coarse mixtures depending on the size of particles. True solutions are homogeneous mixtures with particle sizes below 1 nm. Colloidal dispersions have particle sizes between 1-1000 nm and scatter light. Coarse mixtures have the largest particle sizes and can be separated by mechanical means. Factors like temperature, pressure, and the nature of solute and solvent affect solubility. The document also discusses concepts like saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions as well as concentration units and Raoult's law.
This document discusses solutions and factors that affect their formation and properties. It defines key terms like heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures, concentration, solubility, and Henry's Law. Solution stoichiometry problems can be solved using concentration equations to determine amounts of reactants and products. Factors like temperature, pressure, and intermolecular forces influence a substance's solubility in a given solvent.
This document discusses mixtures and solutions. It covers types of mixtures like suspensions, colloids, and solutions. It defines key terms like solute, solvent, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. It describes how concentration can be expressed using units like molarity, molality and mole fraction. It also discusses factors that affect solubility and solvation like temperature, pressure and intermolecular forces. Finally, it covers colligative properties of solutions such as boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, vapor pressure lowering and osmotic pressure.
This document provides an overview of mixtures and solutions. It discusses types of mixtures including suspensions, colloids, and solutions. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures with solutes dissolved in solvents. Concentration of solutions can be expressed using molarity, molality, or mole fraction. Factors like temperature, pressure, and polarity affect solubility and solvation. Colligative properties of solutions depend on the number of solute particles and include boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
Solutions & their Properties - Gr. 7.pptxTony Coloma
There are two types of mixtures: heterogeneous and homogeneous. A heterogeneous mixture contains visibly distinct components that can be separated through physical means like filtering. A homogeneous mixture appears uniform throughout and maintains a single phase. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures composed of a solvent dissolving one or more solutes. Factors like temperature, particle size, shaking, and concentration affect a solute's solubility in a solvent. Solubility is measured as the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
Solutions can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures. Concentration of solutions can be expressed in terms of percent, moles, molarity, or molality. Factors such as temperature, pressure, and polarity affect the solubility and formation of solutions. Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in solution. Stoichiometry can be used to solve solution reaction problems by considering the concentrations of reactants and products.
Solutions can be either homogeneous, made of one phase, or heterogeneous, made of two or more distinct phases. Concentration of a solution can be expressed in terms of percent composition, molarity, or molality. Factors such as temperature, pressure, and polarity affect the solubility and formation of solutions. Stoichiometry can be used to solve problems involving the concentrations of reactants and products in solution.
This document discusses solutions and solubility. It defines key terms like solute, solvent, solution, saturated solution, and unsaturated solution. It describes factors that affect solubility and dissolution rates like temperature, pressure, surface area, and stirring. It explains that solubility depends on solute-solvent interactions and "like dissolves like". Ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents like water, while nonpolar compounds dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Temperature and pressure can increase or decrease solubility depending on whether the solute is a solid, liquid, or gas. The enthalpy of solution is also discussed.
This document discusses the structure, nomenclature, properties, and synthesis of hydrocarbons. It defines hydrocarbons as compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with an open chain structure. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2. Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms. Higher molecular weight alkanes are liquids or solids at room temperature due to dispersion forces between molecules. Alkanes are important energy sources due to their high heat of combustion when oxidized. Natural gas, petroleum, and coal are major natural sources of alkanes.
The document discusses radioactivity and nuclear medicine, including defining nuclear symbols, describing different types of radiation like alpha and beta particles and gamma rays, properties of radioisotopes such as half-life, and medical applications of radioactivity including using isotopes for cancer therapy and nuclear medicine procedures like tracer studies.
This document provides an overview of acids and bases including:
1) It describes the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry theories of acids and bases, defining acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors.
2) It discusses strong vs. weak acids and bases based on their degree of dissociation in water, and introduces conjugate acid-base pairs.
3) It explains that water can act as both an acid and base, and discusses the autoionization of water and the definition of pH in terms of the hydronium ion concentration.
Spontaneous processes occur naturally without an external stimulus, while nonspontaneous processes require something to be done to occur. Whether a reaction is spontaneous can be determined using thermodynamics by calculating the enthalpy and entropy. Energy exists in various forms including thermal, electrical, chemical, and kinetic, and it can be transferred or changed between objects and forms. During chemical reactions, energy is either absorbed or released as bonds break and form.
This document provides an overview of acids and bases including:
1) It describes the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry theories of acids and bases, defining acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors.
2) It discusses strong vs. weak acids and bases based on their degree of dissociation in water, and introduces conjugate acid-base pairs.
3) It explains that water can act as both an acid and base, and discusses the autoionization of water and the definition of pH in terms of the hydronium ion concentration.
Spontaneous processes occur naturally without an external stimulus, while nonspontaneous processes require something to be done to occur. Whether a reaction is spontaneous can be determined using thermodynamics by calculating the enthalpy and entropy. Energy exists in various forms including thermal, electrical, chemical, and kinetic, and it can be transferred or changed between objects and forms. During chemical reactions, energy is either absorbed or released as bonds break and form.
This chapter discusses the three states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids. It focuses on the differences in their physical properties. The key gas laws - Boyle's law, Charles's law, and the combined gas law - are introduced. Boyle's law relates the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. Charles's law describes how the volume of a gas increases directly with temperature at constant pressure. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to apply these gas laws to calculate changes in volume or pressure of a gas under different conditions.
1) The document provides an overview of key concepts in chemistry including the mole concept, chemical formulas and equations, and different types of chemical reactions.
2) It explains that the mole is a unit used to measure amounts of substances and is equal to 6.022x1023 particles. Molar mass refers to the mass of one mole of a substance.
3) Chemical equations are used to represent chemical reactions and must satisfy the law of conservation of mass by being balanced with the same number and type of atoms on each side of the reaction arrow.
This document provides an overview of chemical bonding and the properties of ionic and covalent compounds. It discusses the following key points:
1. Chemical bonds form due to the attraction between atoms and involve the transfer or sharing of valence electrons. Ionic bonds form through electron transfer between metals and nonmetals, while covalent bonds involve electron sharing.
2. Lewis symbols represent atoms and their valence electrons and are used to predict bonding patterns. Electronegativity determines bond polarity.
3. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to strong electrostatic attractions in the crystal lattice. Covalent compounds can be solids, liquids or gases.
This document provides an overview of atomic structure and the development of atomic theory. It discusses the basic composition of atoms, including electrons, protons, and neutrons. It describes Dalton's atomic theory and the key postulates. It also discusses subatomic particles like isotopes, ions, and the discovery of electrons, protons, and neutrons through experiments. The document is divided into sections on the composition of atoms, atomic calculations, isotopes, ions, atomic mass, and the development of atomic theory from Dalton to the discovery of subatomic particles.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in chemistry, including:
1. Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, and the changes it undergoes. The scientific method is used to systematically study matter through observation, questioning, experimentation and summarization.
2. Matter can exist in three physical states - solid, liquid, and gas. It also has physical and chemical properties and can undergo physical or chemical changes.
3. The metric system is the standard system of measurement in chemistry. It relates units decimally and is easier for conversion than the English system. Careful measurement and use of appropriate units is important in chemistry.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
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Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
2. 6.1 Properties of Solutions
• Solution - homogeneous mixture
• Solute - the substance in the mixture present
in lesser quantity
• Solvent - the substance present in the largest
quantity
• Aqueous solution - solution where the
solvent is water
• Solutions can be liquids as well as solids and
gases
3. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Examples of Solutions
• Air - oxygen and several trace gases are
dissolved in the gaseous solvent, nitrogen
• Alloys - brass and other homogeneous
metal mixtures in the solid state
• Focus on liquid solutions as many important
chemical reactions take place in liquid
solutions
4. 6.1 Properties of Solutions General Properties of Liquid
Solutions
• Clear, transparent, no visible particles
• May have color
• Electrolytes are formed from solutes that are
soluble ionic compounds
• Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate
NaCl(s ) H→ Na + (aq ) + Cl- (aq )
2O
• Volumes of solute and solvent are not additive
– 1 L ethanol + 1 L water does not give 2 L of solution
5. 6.1 Properties of Solutions
Solutions and Colloids
• Colloidal suspension - contains solute
particles which are not uniformly
distributed
– Due to larger size of particles (1nm - 200 nm)
– Appears identical to solution from the
naked eye
– Smaller than 1 nm, have solution
– Larger than 1 nm, have a precipitate
6. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Degree of Solubility
• Solubility - how much of a particular solute can
dissolve in a certain solvent at a specified
temperature
• Factors which affect solubility:
1 Polarity of solute and solvent
• The more different they are, the lower the solubility
2 Temperature
• Increase in temperature usually increases solubility
3 Pressure
• Usually has no effect
• If solubility is of gas in liquid, directly proportional
to applied pressure
7. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Saturation
• Saturated solution - a solution that contains all the
solute that can be dissolved at a particular
temperature
• Supersaturated solution - contains more solute
than can be dissolved at the current temperature
• How is this done?
• Heat solvent, saturate it with solute then cool slowly
• Sometimes the excess will precipitate out
• If it doesn’t precipitate, the solution will be
supersaturated
8. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Solubility and Equilibrium
• If excess solute is added to a solvent, some
dissolves
• At first, rate of dissolution is large
• Later, reverse reaction – precipitation – occurs
more quickly
• When equilibrium is reached the rates of
dissolution and precipitation are equal, there is
some dissolved and some undissolved solute
• A saturated solution is an example of a dynamic
equilibrium
9. 6.1 Properties of Solutions Solubility of Gases: Henry’s Law
• Henry’s law – the number of moles of a gas
dissolved in a liquid at a given temperature is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid
• Gas solubility in a liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas in the atmosphere in
contact with the liquid
• Gases are most soluble at low temperatures
• Solubility decreases significantly at higher
temperatures
– Carbonated beverages – CO2 solubility less when warm
– Respiration – facilitates O2 and CO2 exchange in lungs
10. 6.2 Concentration Based on Mass
6
• Concentration - amount of solute dissolved
in a given amount of solution
• Concentration of a solution has an effect on
– Physical properties
• Melting and boiling points
– Chemical properties
• Solution reactivity
11. 6.2 Concentration Based on
Weight/Volume Percent
• Amount of solute = mass of solute in grams
• Amount of solution = volume in milliliters
amount of solute
concentration =
Mass
amount of solution
• Express concentration as a percentage by
multiplying ratio by 100% = weight/volume
percent or % (W/V)
W grams of solute
% = ×100%
V milliliters of solution
12. 6.2 Concentration Based on Calculating Weight/Volume
Percent
Calculate the percent composition or % (W/V) of
2.00 x 102 mL containing 20.0 g sodium chloride
20.0 g NaCl, mass of solute
Mass
2.00 x 102 mL, total volume of solution
% (W/V) = 20.0g NaCl / 2.00 x 102 mL x 100%
= 10.0% (W/V) sodium chloride
13. Calculate Weight of Solute from
6.2 Concentration Based on
Weight/Volume Percent
Calculate the number of grams of glucose in
7.50 x 102 mL of a 15.0% solution
Mass
W grams of solute
% = × 100%
V milliliters of solution
15.0% (W/V) = Xg glucose/7.50 x 102 mL x 100%
Xg glucose x 100% = (15.0% W/V)(7.50 x 102 mL)
Xg glucose = 113 g glucose
14. 6.2 Concentration Based on Weight/Weight Percent
W grams solute
% = ×100%
W grams solutions
• Weight/weight percent is most useful for
Mass
solutions of 2 solids whose masses are
easily obtained
• Calculate % (W/W) of platinum in gold
ring with 14.00 g Au and 4.500 g Pt
[4.500 g Pt / (4.500 g Pt + 14.00 g Au)] x 100%
= 4.500 g / 18.50 g x 100% = 24.32% Pt
15. 6.3 Concentration of Solutions:
Moles and Equivalents
• Chemical equations represent the relative
number of moles of reactants producing
products
• Many chemical reactions occur in solution
where it is most useful to represent
concentrations on a molar basis
16. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Molarity
• The most common mole-based
concentration unit is molarity
• Molarity
– Symbolized M
– Defined as the number of moles of solute per
liter of solution
moles solute
M=
L solution
17. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity from Moles
• Calculate the molarity of 2.0 L of
solution containing 5.0 mol NaOH
• Use the equation moles solute
M=
L solution
• Substitute into the equation:
MNaOH = 5.0 mol solute
2.0 L solution
= 2.5 M
18. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity From Mass
• If 5.00 g glucose are dissolved in 1.00 x 102 mL of
solution, calculate molarity, M, of the glucose solution
• Convert from g glucose to moles glucose
– Molar mass of glucose = 1.80 x 102 g/mol
5.00 g x 1 mol / 1.80 x 102 g = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
– Convert volume from mL to L
1.00 x 102 mL x 1 L / 103 mL = 1.00 x 10-1 L
• Substitute into the equation:
moles solute
M=
L solution
Mglucose = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
1.00 x 10-1 L solution
= 2.78 x 10-1 M
19. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
Dilution is required to prepare a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
– M1 = molarity of solution before dilution
– M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
– V1 = volume of solution before dilution
– V2 = volume of solution after dilution
moles solute
M= moles solute = (M)(L solution)
L solution
20. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
• In a dilution will the
number of moles of solute
change?
– No, only fewer per unit
volume
• So, M1V1 = M2V2
• Knowing any three terms
permits calculation of the
fourth
21. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity
After Dilution
• Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
diluting 0.050 L of 0.10 M HCl solution to a
volume of 1.0 L
– M1 = 0.10 M molarity of solution before dilution
– M2 = X M molarity of solution after dilution
– V1 = 0.050 L volume of solution before dilution
– V2 = 1.0 L volume of solution after dilution
• Use dilution expression M1V1 = M2V2
• X M = (0.10 M) (0.050 L) / (1.0 L)
0.0050 M HCl OR 5.0 x 10-3 M HCl
22. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Representation of Concentration
of Ions in Solution
Two common ways of expressing
concentration of ions in solution:
1. Moles per liter (molarity)
• Molarity emphasizes the number of
individual ions
2. Equivalents per liter (eq/L)
• Emphasis on charge
23. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Comparison of Molarity and
Equivalents
1 M Na3PO4
• What would the concentration of PO43- ions be?
• 1M
• Equivalent is defined by the charge
• One Equivalent of an ion is the number of grams
of the ion corresponding to Avogadro’s number of
electrical charges
molar mass of ion (g)
One equivalent of an ion =
number of charges on ion
24. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Molarity vs. Equivalents – 1 M Na3PO4
• 1 mol Na+ = 1 equivalent Na+
• 1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents PO43-
• Equivalents of Na+?
– 3 mol Na+ = 3 equivalents of Na+
• Equivalents of PO43-?
– 1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents of PO43-
25. 6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Ion Concentration
• Calculate eq/L of phosphate ion, PO43- in a
solution with 5.0 x 10-3 M phosphate
• Need to use two conversion factors:
– mol PO43- mol charge
– mol charge eq PO43
5.0 x 10-3 mol PO43- x 3 mol charge x 1 eq
1L 1 mol PO43- 1mol charge
• 1.5 x 10-2 eq PO43- /L
26. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Solution Properties
• Colligative properties - properties of
solutions that depend on the concentration
of the solute particles, rather than the
identity of the solute
• Four colligative properties of solutions
1. vapor pressure lowering
2. boiling point elevation
3. freezing point depression
4. osmotic pressure
27. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
Consider Raoult’s law in molecular
Solution Properties
terms
• Vapor pressure of a solution
results from escape of solvent
molecules from liquid to gas
phase
• Partial pressure of gas phase
solvent molecules increases
until equilibrium vapor
pressure is reached
• Presence of solute molecules
hinders escape of solvent
molecules, lowering
equilibrium vapor pressure
28. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure Lowering
• Raoult’s law - when a nonvolatile solute is
Solution Properties
added to a solvent, vapor pressure of the solvent
decreases in proportion to the concentration of
the solute
• Solute molecules (red below) serve as a barrier to
the escape of solvent molecules resulting in a
decrease in the vapor pressure
29. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression and
Solution Properties Boiling Point Elevation
• Freezing point depression may be explained
considering the equilibrium between solid and
liquid states
– Solute molecules interfere with the rate at which
liquid water molecules associate to form the solid
state
• Boiling point elevation can be explained
considering the definition as the temperature at
which vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure
– If a solute is present, then the increase in boiling
temperature is necessary to raise the vapor pressure
to atmospheric temperature
30. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression
• Freezing point depression (∆Tf) - is proportional
Solution Properties
to the number of solute particles
– Solute particles, not just solute
• How does an electrolyte behave?
– Dissociate into ions
• An equal concentration of NaCl will affect the
freezing point twice as much as glucose (a
nonelectrolyte)
• Each solvent has a unique freezing point
depression constant or proportionality factor
∆Tf=kf m
31. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Boiling point elevation
• Boiling point elevation (∆Tb) - is
Solution Properties
proportional to the number of solute
particles
• An electrolyte will affect boiling point to
a greater degree than a nonelectrolyte of
the same concentration
• Each solvent has a unique boiling point
elevation constant
∆Tb=kb m
32. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
• Some types of membranes appear impervious
Solution Properties
to matter, but actually have a network of small
holes called pores
• These pores may be large enough to permit
small solvent molecules to move from one side
of the membrane to the other
• Solute molecules cannot cross the membrane as
they are too large
• Semipermeable membrane - allows
solvent but not solute to diffuse from one side
to another
33. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Osmotic Pressure
• Osmosis - the
Solution Properties
movement of
solvent from a
dilute solution to a
more concentrated
solution through a
semipermeable
membrane
• Requires pressure
to stop this flow
34. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
Solution Properties
• Osmotic pressure (π) - the amount of
pressure required to stop the flow across
a semipermeable membrane
π=MRT
• Osmolarity - the molarity of particles in
solution
– Osmol, used for osmotic pressure
calculation
35. 6.4 Concentration-Dependent Tonicity and the Cell
• Living cells contain aqueous solution and these cells
Solution Properties
are also surrounded by aqueous solution
• Cell function requires maintenance of the same osmotic
pressure inside and outside the cell
• Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells higher
than inside results in a hypertonic solution causing
water to flow into the surroundings, causing collapse =
crenation
• Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells too low,
results in a hypotonic solution causing water to flow
into the cell, causing rupture = hemolysis
• Isotonic solutions have identical osmotic pressures and
no osmotic pressure difference across the cell
membrane
38. 6.5 Water as a Solvent
• Water is often referred to as the “universal
solvent”
• Excellent solvent for polar molecules
• Most abundant liquid on earth
• 60% of the human body is water
– transports ions, nutrients, and waste into and out of
cells
– solvent for biochemical reactions in cells and
digestive tract
– reactant or product in some biochemical processes