This document provides an introduction and overview of epidemiology. It discusses:
1. Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution, determinants, and frequency in human populations. It aims to prevent disease, reduce impact, and improve health.
2. Descriptive epidemiology describes the magnitude of health problems in terms of person, place, and time using narrative, tables, graphs or maps. Analytical epidemiology also seeks to identify factors that cause health problems.
3. Epidemiology has objectives like obtaining frequency and distribution data on disease to reveal causes, test hypotheses, and obtain information to plan prevention and priority health issues.
Epidemiology, Triad of epidemiology, Brief epidemiology, Terminology used in Epidemiology, Epidemiology, traid, modes of disease transmission, disease control and prevention, Basic epidemiology, John Snow and Cholera with Epidemiology
At the end of this presentation the attendant is expected to:
Define Epidemiology.
Identify the main issues in the definition.
Discuss the uses of Epidemiology.
Epidemiology, Triad of epidemiology, Brief epidemiology, Terminology used in Epidemiology, Epidemiology, traid, modes of disease transmission, disease control and prevention, Basic epidemiology, John Snow and Cholera with Epidemiology
At the end of this presentation the attendant is expected to:
Define Epidemiology.
Identify the main issues in the definition.
Discuss the uses of Epidemiology.
Screening for Disease (Epidemiology)
Define screening
Describe the aims and objectives of the screening
Describe the differences between Screening & Diagnostic tests
List the uses of screening
Explain the types of screening, criteria for screening
Discuss the Validity of the screening test
Calculate and interpret the evaluation of the screening test
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences
Introduction to Epidemiology
At the end of this session the participants will be able to:
Discuss the historical evolution of epidemiology
Explain the usage of epidemiology
List the core epidemiological functions
Explain types of epidemiological studies
Founders of epidemiology and thier contributionsShareef Ngunguni
The document is a foundation to epidemiology. It describes at least well known contributes to epidemiology.More preciously,the article entails the details of the epidemiologists. Spelling errors may persist and your feedback may be submitted to the email address attached.
Molecular epidemiology is an emerging branch of epidemiology developed by merging molecular biology into epidemiological studies. Molecular epidemiology studies identify infectious diseases’ causation and pathogenesis and unravel infectious agents’ sources, reservoirs, circulation pattern, transmission pattern, transmission probability, and transmission order. Molecular epidemiology, an area of epidemiology that is somewhat ambiguous, encompasses utilization of biomarkers and genetics as tools to define both exposures (factors that are inherited) and outcomes (factors that are acquired). In last few decades, it has grown extensively to help to understand of disease ecology, in planning disease control, and in drafting health policies.
Screening for Disease (Epidemiology)
Define screening
Describe the aims and objectives of the screening
Describe the differences between Screening & Diagnostic tests
List the uses of screening
Explain the types of screening, criteria for screening
Discuss the Validity of the screening test
Calculate and interpret the evaluation of the screening test
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences
Introduction to Epidemiology
At the end of this session the participants will be able to:
Discuss the historical evolution of epidemiology
Explain the usage of epidemiology
List the core epidemiological functions
Explain types of epidemiological studies
Founders of epidemiology and thier contributionsShareef Ngunguni
The document is a foundation to epidemiology. It describes at least well known contributes to epidemiology.More preciously,the article entails the details of the epidemiologists. Spelling errors may persist and your feedback may be submitted to the email address attached.
Molecular epidemiology is an emerging branch of epidemiology developed by merging molecular biology into epidemiological studies. Molecular epidemiology studies identify infectious diseases’ causation and pathogenesis and unravel infectious agents’ sources, reservoirs, circulation pattern, transmission pattern, transmission probability, and transmission order. Molecular epidemiology, an area of epidemiology that is somewhat ambiguous, encompasses utilization of biomarkers and genetics as tools to define both exposures (factors that are inherited) and outcomes (factors that are acquired). In last few decades, it has grown extensively to help to understand of disease ecology, in planning disease control, and in drafting health policies.
Introduction to Epidemiology
History of Epidemiology.
Definition of Epidemiology and its components.
Epidemiological Basic concepts.
Aims of Epidemiology.
Ten Uses of Epidemiology.
Scope or The Areas of Application .
Types of Epidemiological Studies.
Latino Buying Power - May 2024 Presentation for Latino CaucusDanay Escanaverino
Unlock the potential of Latino Buying Power with this in-depth SlideShare presentation. Explore how the Latino consumer market is transforming the American economy, driven by their significant buying power, entrepreneurial contributions, and growing influence across various sectors.
**Key Sections Covered:**
1. **Economic Impact:** Understand the profound economic impact of Latino consumers on the U.S. economy. Discover how their increasing purchasing power is fueling growth in key industries and contributing to national economic prosperity.
2. **Buying Power:** Dive into detailed analyses of Latino buying power, including its growth trends, key drivers, and projections for the future. Learn how this influential group’s spending habits are shaping market dynamics and creating opportunities for businesses.
3. **Entrepreneurial Contributions:** Explore the entrepreneurial spirit within the Latino community. Examine how Latino-owned businesses are thriving and contributing to job creation, innovation, and economic diversification.
4. **Workforce Statistics:** Gain insights into the role of Latino workers in the American labor market. Review statistics on employment rates, occupational distribution, and the economic contributions of Latino professionals across various industries.
5. **Media Consumption:** Understand the media consumption habits of Latino audiences. Discover their preferences for digital platforms, television, radio, and social media. Learn how these consumption patterns are influencing advertising strategies and media content.
6. **Education:** Examine the educational achievements and challenges within the Latino community. Review statistics on enrollment, graduation rates, and fields of study. Understand the implications of education on economic mobility and workforce readiness.
7. **Home Ownership:** Explore trends in Latino home ownership. Understand the factors driving home buying decisions, the challenges faced by Latino homeowners, and the impact of home ownership on community stability and economic growth.
This SlideShare provides valuable insights for marketers, business owners, policymakers, and anyone interested in the economic influence of the Latino community. By understanding the various facets of Latino buying power, you can effectively engage with this dynamic and growing market segment.
Equip yourself with the knowledge to leverage Latino buying power, tap into their entrepreneurial spirit, and connect with their unique cultural and consumer preferences. Drive your business success by embracing the economic potential of Latino consumers.
**Keywords:** Latino buying power, economic impact, entrepreneurial contributions, workforce statistics, media consumption, education, home ownership, Latino market, Hispanic buying power, Latino purchasing power.
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
Currently pi network is not tradable on binance or any other exchange because we are still in the enclosed mainnet.
Right now the only way to sell pi coins is by trading with a verified merchant.
What is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone verified by pi network team and allowed to barter pi coins for goods and services.
Since pi network is not doing any pre-sale The only way exchanges like binance/huobi or crypto whales can get pi is by buying from miners. And a merchant stands in between the exchanges and the miners.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant. I and my friends has traded more than 6000pi coins successfully
Tele-gram
@Pi_vendor_247
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview.pptxmarketing367770
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview
If you're dreaming of owning a home in California's rural or suburban areas, a USDA loan might be the perfect solution. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers these loans to help low-to-moderate-income individuals and families achieve homeownership.
Key Features of USDA Loans:
Zero Down Payment: USDA loans require no down payment, making homeownership more accessible.
Competitive Interest Rates: These loans often come with lower interest rates compared to conventional loans.
Flexible Credit Requirements: USDA loans have more lenient credit score requirements, helping those with less-than-perfect credit.
Guaranteed Loan Program: The USDA guarantees a portion of the loan, reducing risk for lenders and expanding borrowing options.
Eligibility Criteria:
Location: The property must be located in a USDA-designated rural or suburban area. Many areas in California qualify.
Income Limits: Applicants must meet income guidelines, which vary by region and household size.
Primary Residence: The home must be used as the borrower's primary residence.
Application Process:
Find a USDA-Approved Lender: Not all lenders offer USDA loans, so it's essential to choose one approved by the USDA.
Pre-Qualification: Determine your eligibility and the amount you can borrow.
Property Search: Look for properties in eligible rural or suburban areas.
Loan Application: Submit your application, including financial and personal information.
Processing and Approval: The lender and USDA will review your application. If approved, you can proceed to closing.
USDA loans are an excellent option for those looking to buy a home in California's rural and suburban areas. With no down payment and flexible requirements, these loans make homeownership more attainable for many families. Explore your eligibility today and take the first step toward owning your dream home.
Introduction to Indian Financial System ()Avanish Goel
The financial system of a country is an important tool for economic development of the country, as it helps in creation of wealth by linking savings with investments.
It facilitates the flow of funds form the households (savers) to business firms (investors) to aid in wealth creation and development of both the parties
when will pi network coin be available on crypto exchange.DOT TECH
There is no set date for when Pi coins will enter the market.
However, the developers are working hard to get them released as soon as possible.
Once they are available, users will be able to exchange other cryptocurrencies for Pi coins on designated exchanges.
But for now the only way to sell your pi coins is through verified pi vendor.
Here is the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins effectively (from 50 - 100k pi)DOT TECH
Anywhere in the world, including Africa, America, and Europe, you can sell Pi Network Coins online and receive cash through online payment options.
Pi has not yet been launched on any exchange because we are currently using the confined Mainnet. The planned launch date for Pi is June 28, 2026.
Reselling to investors who want to hold until the mainnet launch in 2026 is currently the sole way to sell.
Consequently, right now. All you need to do is select the right pi network provider.
Who is a pi merchant?
An individual who buys coins from miners on the pi network and resells them to investors hoping to hang onto them until the mainnet is launched is known as a pi merchant.
debuts.
I'll provide you the Telegram username
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins at high rate quickly.DOT TECH
Where can I sell my pi coins at a high rate.
Pi is not launched yet on any exchange. But one can easily sell his or her pi coins to investors who want to hold pi till mainnet launch.
This means crypto whales want to hold pi. And you can get a good rate for selling pi to them. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor below.
A vendor is someone who buys from a miner and resell it to a holder or crypto whale.
Here is the telegram contact of my vendor:
@Pi_vendor_247
what is the future of Pi Network currency.DOT TECH
The future of the Pi cryptocurrency is uncertain, and its success will depend on several factors. Pi is a relatively new cryptocurrency that aims to be user-friendly and accessible to a wide audience. Here are a few key considerations for its future:
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram if u want to sell PI COINS.
1. Mainnet Launch: As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Pi was still in the testnet phase. Its success will depend on a successful transition to a mainnet, where actual transactions can take place.
2. User Adoption: Pi's success will be closely tied to user adoption. The more users who join the network and actively participate, the stronger the ecosystem can become.
3. Utility and Use Cases: For a cryptocurrency to thrive, it must offer utility and practical use cases. The Pi team has talked about various applications, including peer-to-peer transactions, smart contracts, and more. The development and implementation of these features will be essential.
4. Regulatory Environment: The regulatory environment for cryptocurrencies is evolving globally. How Pi navigates and complies with regulations in various jurisdictions will significantly impact its future.
5. Technology Development: The Pi network must continue to develop and improve its technology, security, and scalability to compete with established cryptocurrencies.
6. Community Engagement: The Pi community plays a critical role in its future. Engaged users can help build trust and grow the network.
7. Monetization and Sustainability: The Pi team's monetization strategy, such as fees, partnerships, or other revenue sources, will affect its long-term sustainability.
It's essential to approach Pi or any new cryptocurrency with caution and conduct due diligence. Cryptocurrency investments involve risks, and potential rewards can be uncertain. The success and future of Pi will depend on the collective efforts of its team, community, and the broader cryptocurrency market dynamics. It's advisable to stay updated on Pi's development and follow any updates from the official Pi Network website or announcements from the team.
how can i use my minded pi coins I need some funds.DOT TECH
If you are interested in selling your pi coins, i have a verified pi merchant, who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
Because the core team has announced that pi network will not be doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges like huobi, bitmart and hotbit can get pi is by buying from miners.
Now a merchant stands in between these exchanges and the miners. As a link to make transactions smooth. Because right now in the enclosed mainnet you can't sell pi coins your self. You need the help of a merchant,
i will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant below. 👇 I and my friends has traded more than 3000pi coins with him successfully.
@Pi_vendor_247
how to sell pi coins in South Korea profitably.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network coins in South Korea or any other country, by finding a verified pi merchant
What is a verified pi merchant?
Since pi network is not launched yet on any exchange, the only way you can sell pi coins is by selling to a verified pi merchant, and this is because pi network is not launched yet on any exchange and no pre-sale or ico offerings Is done on pi.
Since there is no pre-sale, the only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners. So a pi merchant facilitates these transactions by acting as a bridge for both transactions.
How can i find a pi vendor/merchant?
Well for those who haven't traded with a pi merchant or who don't already have one. I will leave the telegram id of my personal pi merchant who i trade pi with.
Tele gram: @Pi_vendor_247
#pi #sell #nigeria #pinetwork #picoins #sellpi #Nigerian #tradepi #pinetworkcoins #sellmypi
what is the best method to sell pi coins in 2024DOT TECH
The best way to sell your pi coins safely is trading with an exchange..but since pi is not launched in any exchange, and second option is through a VERIFIED pi merchant.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and pioneers and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive amounts before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade pi coins with.
@Pi_vendor_247
Even tho Pi network is not listed on any exchange yet.
Buying/Selling or investing in pi network coins is highly possible through the help of vendors. You can buy from vendors[ buy directly from the pi network miners and resell it]. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal vendor.
@Pi_vendor_247
1. CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Epidemiology is derived from the Greek words , where the epi- , which means " the surface ,
above , override , or about " , demos meaning " people , population , population , human "
and ologi means " science " . Etymologically, the epidemiology , the science about what
happened to the population .
Epidemiology of birth based on two basic assumptions . First , the disease does not occur in
the human population and scattered so randomly. Second , the actual human disease has
causal factors and preventive factors that can be identified through systematic research on
various populations , place , and time . Based on these assumptions , epidemiology can be
defined as " the study of distribution and determinants - the frequency of disease and
determinants of health status in human populations .
The definition implies that epidemiology is essentially a quantitative empirical science ,
which involves a lot of observation and systematic measurement of the frequency of the
disease and a number of factors related to the disease being studied .
The final goal of epidemiological research that is preventing the incidence of disease , reduce
the impact of disease and improve human health status . Target epidemiology is the human
population , not individuals . These characteristics that distinguish epidemiological from
clinical medicine and biomedical sciences , which has focused to individuals , tissues , or
organs .
Epidemiology is useful to examine and explain the impact of public health control measures ,
prevention programs , clinical interventions and health services to assess and explain the
disease or other factors that impact on the health status of the population . Epidemiology also
may exacerbate the disease include a description of their presence in the population and the
factors - factors controlling the presence or absence of the disease .
1.2 Objectives
a. To know the definitions , concepts , types, purpose and application , role , scope ,
measurement epidemiology .
b . To determine the natural history of the disease and prevention efforts .
2. CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
2.1 DEFINITIONS
Epidemiology is a branch of health science to analyze the nature and spread of a variety of
health problems in a specific population and to study because the incidence of these health
problems and disorders for purposes of prevention and mitigation . Epidemiology is the
discipline of health sciences including medicine , which is a logical process between the
physical, biological and social phenomena are closely related to health status , incidence of
disease and other health problems .
Methods of epidemiology is a scientific approach in the search for the causes and factors
causal relationship occurrence of certain events on a particular population group . In this case
the term can mean a group of residents of a particular object both living organisms such as
humans , animals and plants as well as the nature of objects / materials from industrial
products as well as other objects . Thus it is not surprising that epidemiological methods are
not limited to the health sector but in other fields , including the field of management .
Therefore, in use , is closely related to the epidemiology of various health disciplines outside
ilm , both eksata disciplines and social sciences .
Epidemiology is the science of complex and constantly evolving . Therefore , it is not easy to
determine a limit standard . This tmpak with various constraints expressed by epidemiologists
as follows :
Epidemiology is the study of distribution and determinants of diseases that affect the
frequency of disease in groups of humans ( Mac Mahon , B & Pugh , TF , 1970)
Epidemiology is the study of factors that determine the frequency and distribution of
disease in human populations ( Lowe C.R & Koestrzewski . J , 1973)
Epidemiology is the study of distribution and determinants of disease and forced Ruda in
human populations ( Mausner J. S & Bahn , 1974)
Epidemiology is the science yng was studying the distribution of disease or physiological
state of the population and the determinants that affect the distribution ( Lilienfeld AM & D.
E Lilienfeld , 1980)
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in human
populations ( Barker , DJP , 1982)
The limitation of the equation there are all expressed epidemiology is the science that studies
the frequency distribution of disease and its determinants , there are only two differences are
additional physiological phenomena ( Lilienfeld & Lilienfeld ) and forced Ruda ( Mausner &
Bhan ) . It can be concluded that epidemiology is the study of disease , forced Ruda , and
physiological phenomena of frequency distribution and determinants in human groups .
3. Understanding epidemiology is reviewed from various aspects :
a. Academic aspects
Academically , epidemiology means DTA analysis of health , socio-economic , and the trend
is going to conduct the identification and interpretation of changes in health status that occur
or will terjdi general population or specific population groups .
b . Clinical aspects
Epidemiology means an attempt to detect early changes in the incidence or prevalence of
discovery through clinical or laboratories at the beginning of an outbreak or the emergence of
new diseases such as , carcinoma of the vagina in girls or AIDS were first discovered by the
clinician .
c . Practical aspects
Epidemiology of the practical aspects of science that is aimed at the prevention of the spread
of diseases that afflict individuals , groups or the general public .
In this case , the cause of the disease should not be known for certain , but preferably on the
mode of transmission , infetivitas , avoiding agents suspected as the cause , or environmental
toxins and establish immunity to ensure human health .
For example :
a) The discovery of drug side effects iodokloroquinolin serious in Japan , although when the
mechanism is not clear and in global undiscovered side effects are , but the Indonesian
government through the Ministry of Health has banned the circulation of the drug. This is
intended to prevent the spread of the side effects of the drug into Indonesia
b ) Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ( AIDS ) , although the means of protection and
treatment is not known , but it has made many efforts to prevent the spread of the disease , for
example, there must be free of AIDS information to be able to enter a state , blood donor
screening , surveillance of homosexuals , and others.
2.2 CONCEPT OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Epidemiological concepts are still applicable today are among others :
a. Environmental effects on the incidence of a disease
b . The use of quantitative data and statistical
c . transmission of the disease
d . Experiment on humans
In the development of epidemiological limit further includes at least three elements , namely :
a. Includes all diseases
Epidemiology studying all diseases , both infectious disease and non- disease infeksi.seperti
cancer, malnutrition ( malnutrition ) , traffic accidents and workplace accidents , mental
illness and so on . Even in developed countries , epidemiological activities also include health
services .
4. b . population
If medical clinic oriented images of the individual diseases epidemiology is focused on the
distribution of disease in populations ( people ) or group .
c . ecological approach
The frequency and distribution of disease studied from the background to the whole human
environment both physical environment , biological , and social . This has meant an
ecological approach . The occurrence of the disease in a person's total assessed from humans
and the environment .
2.3 TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
a. Descriptive Epidemiology
Epidemiology which only illustrates the magnitude of the health problems that occur in the
community . The magnitude of the health problems described in 3 epidemiological variables
that person (person ) , where ( place ) and time (time ) . Way to describe the health problems
of the form: narrative , tables , graphs or images / maps .
i . Analytical Epidemiology
Epidemiology is in addition to describing the magnitude of health problems , also look for
factors that cause health problems in the community . Analytic Epidemiology addition to
describing the magnitude of the problem with 3 variables epidemiology also seek the causes
of health problems tsb.Cara seek the causes by doing research
2.4 PURPOSE AND APPLICATION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
2.4.1 Objectives Epidemiology
In general , it can be said that the objectives to be achieved in the study of epidemiology is to
obtain frequency data distribution and determinants of disease or other phenomena related to
public health . The data obtained can be used to obtain information about the cause of the
disease , for example :
1 . Epidemiological studies conducted in outbreaks of food poisoning can be used to reveal
the contaminated food and find the cause .
2 . Epidemiological studies are conducted to find the relationship between lung carcinoma
with asbestos .
3 . Determine whether the hypotheses generated from animal percobaabn consistent with
epidemiological data . For example , experiments on the occurrence of bladder carcinoma in
animals smeared tar . To determine whether the results are consistent with the reality of
animal experiments in humans , conducted an analysis of all patients with carcinoma of the
bladder is exposed to more cigarettes than non- sufferers .
4 . Obtain information that could be used as a material consideration in planning , prevention
of health problems , as well as determine the priority public health issues , for example :
5. a. Data frequency distribution of the various diseases that are in the community can be used
to plan health care needs of a region and determine the priority issues .
b . When the results of epidemiological studies found that the incidence of neonatal tetanus in
a region is high enough then the data can be used to formulate an effective and efficient
strategy in menggulangi such problems , for example with mengirirm field workers to
provide counseling to mothers and conducting immunization in pregnant women .
2.4.2 Application of Epidemiology
1 . Epidemiologic observations ( epidemiological surveillance ) is the observation of the signs
of outbreaks of disease in the community .
2 . Surveillance activities conducted by collecting data , then record and analyze the
emergence of disease events .
3 . Epidemiologic research : nature and conduct more in-depth analysis and conclusions .
4 . The study aims to find the factors that cause disease or prove hypotheses that have been
made based on the study problems that have occurred .
2.5 ROLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN HEALTH
In msyarkat health , epidemiology mempenyai three main functions :
1 . Menerangkn about the magnitude of the problem and ganggun health ( including disease )
and its distribution in a given population .
2 . Preparing the data / information that is essential for the purposes of planning , program
implementation , and evaluation of various service activities ( health ) in the community ,
both the prevention and control of diseases and other forms as well as give priority to those
activities .
3 . Identifying the various factors that cause problems or factors associated with the
occurrence of the problem .
To carry out these functions , the epidemiologist has focused on a variety of properties of
individual characteristics in a particular population characteristics such as the nature of the
biological , socio- economic , demographic , individual habits and genetic properties . At
various properties of these characteristics , will give an idea of the nature of the problems that
exist in the community as well as the possibility of the factors that influence it .
2.6 SCOPE
Understanding of epidemiology and epidemiological methods , the shape of the epidemiology
of activities covering various aspects of community life , whether related to the health sector
and outside the health sector . Various forms and types of activities in the epidemiology
related to each other NZ so it is not rare form of overlapping activities . Form of basic
epidemiological activities most commonly used is a form of descriptive epidemiology
6. epidemiologii the form of activities that give an idea or information about the state and nature
of deployment health status and health disorders and diseases in a specific population groups
( especially according to the characteristic nature , time , and place )
Forms of activity are closely related to ang epidemiology descriptive epidemiology is to
assess the health status and the size of the health problems that exist in a given society . This
form of activity is closely connected with the preparation of public health planning and
outcome assessment of health care operations in a particular population .
Today epidemiological studies can basically be divided dlam two forms namely basic
research observation of the natural events in the community to find a causal relationship
disruptions in the normal state of the society , as well as an experimental research study based
on the particular treatment of the object to dpat get answers about the effect of the treatment
on the object under study . In this case , the target population dientukan carefully and any
changes that arise as a result of a special treatment by the investigator .
In a further development the principles of epidemiology which include descriptive
epidemiology and epidemiologic studies more widely developed as a system approach in a
variety of civic life
The scope of epidemiology as mentioned above including across various problems that arise
in the community , both of which are closely related to the health sector as well as with a
variety of social life , has encouraged the development of epidemiology in different fields :
1 . Epidemiology of infectious diseases
This form which has provided opportunities in the prevention and eradication of infectious
diseases . Successful men treat various infectious diseases today is one of the great results of
epidemiology . The role of epidemiological surveillance at first only aimed at infectious
diseases careful observation , it has given significant results in tackling the problems of
infectious diseases and non-communicable diseases .
2 . Epidemiology of non-communicable diseases
Is currently growing rapidly in search of a variety of factors that play a role in the onset of
various issues non-communicable diseases such as cancer , systemic disease and other
chronic diseases , including the growing problem of traffic accidents and abuse of certain
drugs . This field is used primarily by the increase in many health problems closely related to
various health problems as a result of advances in various fields of industry influenced the
state of the environment , including the physical environment , biological , cultural and social
environment .
3 . clinical epidemiology
This form is one of the areas of epidemiology that is being developed by clinicians that aims
to equip clinicians / physicians on how to approach the problem through disilin science of
epidemiology . In use everyday clinical epidemiology , medical officers , especially the
doctors often use epidemiological principles = principle in handling individual cases . They
7. are more oriented towards the cause and how to resolve individual cases and are usually not
interested in knowing fatherly and analyzed the sources of disease , mode of transmission and
distribution properties in the community . Various results obtained from the clinicians , an
extra- yng information data useful in epidemiological analysis but it should be remembered
that epidemiology is not limited to data and information alone but it is a discipline that is to
own the approach and its application in particular
4 . Epidemiology of population
Is one branch of science that uses the system Epidemiologist Epidemiologist approach in
analyzing the various issues related to the field of demographics and factors that influence the
demographic changes occurring in society . Population epidemiology approaches not only
provides an analysis of the nature of the demographic characteristics of the population in
relation to health and disease in society but also very involved in various aspects of
population and family planning . Services through the service , which is closely connected
with the community such as education , social welfare , employment opportunity , it is related
to the circumstances and nature of the population served . In this case the role of the
epidemiology of population is very important to be used as a basis in / take kebijakn and in
good planning . Also being developed epidemiological reproductive system that is closely
related to the family planning movement dn population .
5 . Epidemiology of health care treatment
This form is one of the systems management approach in analyzing problems , finding the
cause of a factor issue as well as the preparation of solving such problems in a comprehensive
and integrated . Sisem epidemiological approach to health planning is widely used by health
planners in the form of situational analysis , determination of priorities and outcomes
assessment in the form of a general health activities as well as the specific target .
6 . Epidemiology of environmental and occupational health
This form is one part of the study as well epidemioloi mnganalisis state of health workers due
to the effect of exposure on lingkubngan work , both physically kimiawo biological and
social culture , and habits of life of the workers . This form is very useful in the analysis of
health levels ekerja as well as to evaluate the situation and work environment and
occupational diseases .
7 . Epidemiology of mental health
Is one of the basic approach and analysis of issues of mental disorders in the community ,
both the objec mental disorders specific population groups , and analysis of the various
factors that influence the onset of mental disorders in the community . With the increasing
variety of complaints ang community members more mengarh to psychiatric problems
accompanied by social change society demands a car approaches through community social
epidemiology menuntu an approach through social epidemiology relating to the epidemiology
of mental health , given that today is no longer a mental health disorder is only individual
8. examples of health problems , tetau have a public social problem .
8 . nutritional Epidemiology
Today many used preformance analysis of community nutrition problems in which these
issues are closely related to various factors related to lifestyle of the people . Approach to
community nutrition problems through nutritional epidemiology aims to analyze the various
factors which are closely related to the emergence of community nutrition problems , whether
they are biological , and especially with regard to the social life of the community .
Countermeasures issue public nutrition , along with more nutritional surveillance
countermeasures leads kepad various factors are strongly associated with the incidence of
these problems in society and not just limited to target any individual or work environment .
2.7 NATURAL HISTORY OF DISEASE
The natural history of a disease can be classified into 5 stages :
a. pre Pathogenesis
This stage has been the interaction between the host with germs , but this interaction occurs
outside the human body , in the sense of germs is outside the human body and not into the
body . In these circumstances have not found any signs of the disease and the host immune
system is still strong and can resist disease . This situation is healthy .
b . Incubation stage ( already entered Pathogenesis )
At this stage germs get into the body of the host , but the symptoms have not appeared . Each
disease has a different incubation period . Cholera 1-2 days , which is a chronic disease such
as lung cancer , AIDS , etc. .
c . Early disease stages
This phase is calculated from the appearance of disease symptoms . at this stage the host had
fallen ill but still light and still be able to do daily activities . When the disease may be cured
promptly treated , but if it can not get worse . This terganting human endurance itself, such as
improving diet , rest and good care at home ( self-care ) .
d . Advanced disease stage
When host disease gets worse , because it is not treated or treatment of irregular or no
attention to the suggestions given in the disease early , then enter at an advanced stage of
disease . Host look defenseless and no longer able to do the activity . This stage of the host
requires intensive care and treatment .
e . End stage disease
The final stage is divided into five circumstances :
1 . Complete recovery ( shape and function of the host 's body back to function as a previous
state or free from disease )
2 . Healed but deformed , ending host disease or disease-free , but the recovery is not perfect ,
due to disability ( physical , mental and social ) and is highly dependent on the disease attacks
9. the organs of the host.
3 . Career , career stalled due course of the disease as the symptoms do not appear again , but
there is still a host body germs at a time when the host immune system will decrease
recurrence. This situation is not only harmful to the host itself , but can be harmful to others
or the community , because it can be a source of disease transmission (human reservoir ) .
4 . Chronic course of the disease at this stage appears stalled , but the symptoms did not
change . In other words, do not gain weight or lighter . This state of the host is still in a state
of pain .
5 . Died , When the disease worsens and the state can not be treated anymore , so cessation
course of the disease because the host dies . This situation is not a desirable situation .
2.8 MEASURES OF DISEASE PREVENTION AND SIZE FREQUENCY
In public health there are 5 levels of disease prevention by Leavell and Clark . At point 1 and
2 were taken during the pre- hospital and 3,4,5 point made during the illness .
1 . Improved health ( health promotion )
a. Provision of healthy food and enough ( quality and quantity )
b . Improvement of hygiene and environmental sanitation , such as water supply , waste
disposal , excreta disposal and waste .
c . Health education to the community . Eg for the upper middle class in developing countries
against the risk of coronary heart disease .
d . Exercise regularly according to the ability of individuals .
e . For the sake of entertainment opportunities to obtain mental and social development .
f . Advice marriage and responsible sex education .
2 . General and special protection against certain diseases
a. Providing immunization to vulnerable groups to prevent disease .
b . Isolation of patients with infectious diseases , such as avian flu .
c . Prevention of accidents both in public places and workplaces .
d . Protection against materials that are carcinogenic , toxic materials or allergies .
e . Control of pollution sources .
3 . Enforcement of early diagnosis and prompt treatment and appropriate
a. Finding the case as early as possible .
b . Looking for people in the community by way of examination . For example, blood tests ,
pulmonary rontgent .
c . Looking for all the people who have been associated with infectious disease to be
supervised so that if the disease can arise immediately given treatment .
d . Increasing the regularity of treatment to patients .
e . The provision of appropriate treatment at the beginning of every case .
4 . Restrictions disability ( dissability Limitation)
10. a. Perfect treatment and care so that the patient recovered and no complications occurred .
b . Prevention of complications and disability .
c . Improvement of health facilities as a support for the possible treatment and intensive
treatment .
5 . Health Recovery ( rehabilitation )
a. Developing rehabilitation institutions by involving the community .
b . Sensitize the public to accept them back by giving at least moral support for those
concerned to survive .
c . Ensuring that each township social rehabilitation of patients who have disabilities are able
to defend themselves .
d . Extension and continuation of efforts that must still be done one after he recovered from
an illness .
Size frequency of disease shows the magnitude of the health problems found in the human
group or society . That is when the problems associated with the disease shows many groups
of people afflicted by the disease . To determine the frequency of health problems that occur
in a group of people / society do these steps :
1 . Finding health problems , by taking the data of patients who come to the clinic , reports of
people who come to the clinic .
2 . Research or health survey , for example : Household Health Survey
3 . Case studies , for example : the case of post-tsunami disease.
2.9 RESEARCH AND VARIABLE Epidemiology
Simply put , epidemiological studies can be divided into two groups as follows :
1 . Descriptive epidemiology , namely cross sectional study or studies or cross-sectional
prevalence study or survey .
2 . Analytic epidemiology , consisting of :
a. non-experimental
1 ) Study cohort / follow-up / incidence / longitudinal / prospective study . The cohort is
defined as a group of people . The purpose of the study sought due to ( illness ) .
2 ) Case-control studies / case control study / retrospective studies . Goal is to find the causes
of disease .
3 ) Ecological Studies . The study uses ecology as a source of material for the empirical
investigation of risk factors or characteristics that are in a constant state of society . For
example , air pollution caused by fuel combustion that occurs in big cities .
b . Experimental .
1 ) Clinical Trial
2 ) Community Trial .
VARIABLE Epidemiology
11. 1 . variables People
a) Age
b ) Gender
c ) Type Peketjaan
d ) pengahasilan
e ) Group of conduct
f ) Marital Status
2 . The variable
3 . variable Time
a) Short Term
b ) Change in Status
c ) Changes in morbidity
2:10 MEASUREMENT OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Measurement of disease epidemiology divided widened 2 are:
1 . incident
The incident is an overview of the frequency of new cases of a disease that is found at a
certain time in the community . To be able to calculate the incidence of a disease , previous
must be known in advance about :
a. Data on the number of new patients .
b . Number of people who may be exposed to new diseases
In general, these incidents can be divided into three kinds , namely :
Incidence Rate
Ie number of new cases of a disease that is found in a certain time period ( usually 1 year )
compared with the number of people who may be affected by the new disease in the middle
period in question .
The formula is used :
Number of New Patients
Incidence rate = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− x K
The number of residents who may be affected
The disease in mid-
K = Constant ( 100 % , 1000 ‰ ) X K
Benefit Incidence Rate is :
- Knowing the health problems faced by
- Knowing the risk for developing health problems faced
- Knowing the burden of tasks that must be held by a health care facility .
12. Attack Rate
Ie number of new cases of a disease that is found at some time compared with the number of
people who may be exposed to the disease at the same time .
Benefits Attack Rate is :
- Estimating the degree of transmission of a disease or attack .
The higher the value of the AR , the higher the ability of transmission of the disease .
The formula is used :
Number of New Patients within One Today
Attack rate =−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−xK
Population reply . May be exposed to disease
The pd . When the reply . Same .
Secondary Attack Rate
The number of new cases of a disease contracted in the second attack reduced compared with
the total population of people / residents who had disease in the first attack .
Used to calculate a panyakit contagious and in a small population ( eg in One Family ) .
The formula is used :
Number of New Patients pd . Both attacks
SAR = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−xK
( Jml. Penddk - Pendd . Clincher . Affected First Attack )
prevalent
The description of the frequency of old and new patients were found at a certain time in a
certain group of people . In the calculation of prevalence figures , the total population is used
regardless of the person / people who Invulnerability or Pendeuduk with Risk ( Population at
Risk ) . So it can be said that the actual prevalence rate was an RATE NOT - pure , because
the population is not affected by the disease may also be included in the calculation . In
general, the value of prevalent divided into 2 , namely :
a) Period prevalent Rate
Number of patients with a disease of old and new that is found in a certain period of time
divided by the total population in the corresponding period of the mid- period value is only
used for the prevalent rate of disease emergence is difficult to know when , for example in
cancer disease and Mental Disorders .
The formula is used :
Number of patients with old & new
13. Period prevalent Rate = ------------------------------- xK
The population of the mid-
b ) Point prevalent Rate
Number of patients with a disease of old and new at one time divided by the total population
at that time . Can be used to determine the quality of health services being offered .
The formula :
Number of Patients When the old and new
Point prevalent Rate ----------------------------- = xK
When the Population
14. CHAPTER III
CLOSING
A. conclusions
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the frequency and distribution of health problems in
a group of humans and the factors that influence it .
Simply put , epidemiological studies can be divided into two groups as follows :
Descriptive epidemiology , namely Cross Sectional Study / cross sectional studies /
prevalence studies or surveys .
Analytic epidemiology consists of :
non-experimental
Experimental .
At this time epidemiology is defined as the study of the frequency and distribution of health
problems in a group of the human family and the factors that influence it . Of such
restrictions , soon seen that in terms of epidemiology , there are three things that are the
principal :
a) The frequency of health problems
b ) Dissemination of health problems
c ) Factors that memepengaruhi
There are several roles epidemiologist in public health , which are:
Locate / identify the factors that affect the incidence of health problems or disease in a given
society in search of the data for the prevention and how to prevent it . Preparing the data /
information for the purposes of health programs to assess the health status in the community
as well as provide an overview of the threatened population groups .
Help assess some of the results of health programs .
Develop a methodology to analyze disease and how to cope , both individual diseases ( but
analyzed in the group ) and extraordinary events ( KLB ) / outbreaks in the community .
Epidemiology also has important benefits in solving public health problems , namely :
gives an overview ( description ) about the spread ( distribution ) , and the large extent and
other health problems . factors explain the interaction agent , host and environment .
Population groups that outlines the risk and high- risk groups to the population that has no
risk . evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency as well as the success of the activities .
administrative work which helps health planning ( planning ) , monitoring ( observation ) ,
and evaluation ( evaluation ) . explain the causes of health problems that can be composed
mitigation measures . Can explain the natural progression of a disease . Can describe the state
of a health problem are: epidemic , pandemic , endemic , and sporadic
15. REFERENCES
1. Anwar , asrul.dr.m.ph.1988 . Introduction to Epidemiology . Jakarta : PT . Binarupa
script
2. Sutrisna , Method Bambang.dr.MHSc.1986.Pengantar Epidemiology . Jakarta : PT .
Dian people .
3. Basic Material Module FKM UNDIP Epidemiology 2010.
4. Epidemiology Budioro.B.2007.Pengantar Edition II . . Semarang : Board Publisher
Undip .
16. INTRODUCTION
Praise and Gratitude I pray to God the Almighty, because of the blessings and abundance
rahmatnyalah then I must finish an essay in a timely manner.
Here the author presented a paper entitled
"Epidemiology"
Through this preface first writer apologized and pleaded proclamation which the contents of
this paper when there is a shortage and there are posts that I make less precise or menyinggu
reader feeling.
I hereby dedicate this paper with gratitude and may God Almighty bless this paper so as to
provide benefits.
Raha, Maret 2014
AUTHOR
17. TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE.....................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................... ii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.................................................................. 1
1.1 Background 1......................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II DISCUSSION..................................................................... 2
2.1 DEFINITIONS........................................................................................ 2
2.2 CONCEPT OF EPIDEMIOLOGY..................................................... 3
2.3 TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY............................................................. 4
2.4 PURPOSE AND APPLICATION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY..................... 4
2.5 ROLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY IN HEALTH......................................... 5
2.6 SCOPE.................................................................................................. 5
2.7 NATURAL HISTORY OF DISEASE.................................................... 8
2.8 MEASURES OF DISEASE PREVENTION AND SIZE FREQUENCY9
2.9 RESEARCH AND VARIABLE EPIDEMIOLOG................................. 10
2:10 MEASUREMENT OF EPIDEMIOLOGY........................................... 11
CHAPTER III CLOSING........................................................................... 14
3.1 Kesimpulan........................................................................................... 14
3.2 Saran..................................................................................................... 14
REFERENCES ................................................ ............................................ 15