The document discusses chemotherapy and the treatment of leprosy. It begins by defining chemotherapy as using chemicals to destroy microorganisms without damaging host tissues. It then discusses the basic principles of chemotherapy and potential biochemical targets in bacterial cells. The document also provides details on the signs and symptoms of leprosy, its classification, stages of infection, and modern treatments which include dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine. It describes the mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, and potential side effects of each drug used in multidrug therapy for leprosy.
This document discusses macrolide antibiotics. It begins by introducing macrolides as a class of antibiotics characterized by their large lactone ring structures. It then classifies macrolides based on their ring size and discusses key macrolides like erythromycin. The document outlines the chemistry of macrolides, including their characteristic lactone ring, ketone/hydroxyl groups, and deoxy sugar components. It also discusses the structural activity relationship of macrolides using erythromycin as a lead compound and how derivatives like clarithromycin, roxithromycin and azithromycin were developed for improved properties.
This slides are prepared for undergraduate medical (MBBS) class for teaching pharmacology. Materials for slides are taken from Essentials of Pharmacology, KD Tripathi 7th ed, Medical Pharmacology, SK Shrivastav and Sharma & Sharma. Pictures are obtained from google.
The document discusses folic acid synthesis inhibitors, which are drugs that interfere with the synthesis of folic acid in bacteria. It describes several classes of these drugs, including sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines. Sulfonamides competitively inhibit the enzyme dihydropteroate synthase, blocking the synthesis of folic acid. Co-trimoxazole is highlighted as an effective combination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim that inhibits both folic acid synthesis and reduction.
This document provides an overview of anti-fungal drugs. It begins by classifying antifungals based on their chemical structure, sites of action, and mechanisms of action. The major classes discussed include azoles, polyene macrolides, and other antifungals. Azoles like fluconazole and itraconazole are broad-spectrum and inhibit ergosterol synthesis. Amphotericin B binds to ergosterol and forms pores in fungal membranes. Other antifungals discussed are flucytosine, griseofulvin, and nystatin. The document outlines the mechanisms, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects of the main antifungal drug
Macrolides are a class of antibiotics found in streptomycetes. They are natural lactones with a large ring, consisting of 14 to 20 atoms. Macrolides bind to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome and inhibit ribosomal translocation, leading to inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis.
Macrolide antibiotics contain a macrocyclic lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin, the first macrolide discovered in the 1950s, is produced by Streptomyces erythreus. Newer macrolides like roxithromycin and clarithromycin have improved properties compared to erythromycin such as better absorption and tolerability. Macrolides bind to the 50s subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis and thus exhibiting bacteriostatic and sometimes bactericidal activity. They are effective against many gram-positive bacteria and atypical pathogens. Resistance can develop via efflux pumps or methylation of the ribosomal binding site.
This ppt contains information on the classification, structures, uses and SAR related to macrolide antibiotics, lincomycins and chloramphenicol. It was prepared according to PCI syllabus for B.Pharma graduates
This document discusses macrolide antibiotics. It begins by introducing macrolides as a class of antibiotics characterized by their large lactone ring structures. It then classifies macrolides based on their ring size and discusses key macrolides like erythromycin. The document outlines the chemistry of macrolides, including their characteristic lactone ring, ketone/hydroxyl groups, and deoxy sugar components. It also discusses the structural activity relationship of macrolides using erythromycin as a lead compound and how derivatives like clarithromycin, roxithromycin and azithromycin were developed for improved properties.
This slides are prepared for undergraduate medical (MBBS) class for teaching pharmacology. Materials for slides are taken from Essentials of Pharmacology, KD Tripathi 7th ed, Medical Pharmacology, SK Shrivastav and Sharma & Sharma. Pictures are obtained from google.
The document discusses folic acid synthesis inhibitors, which are drugs that interfere with the synthesis of folic acid in bacteria. It describes several classes of these drugs, including sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines. Sulfonamides competitively inhibit the enzyme dihydropteroate synthase, blocking the synthesis of folic acid. Co-trimoxazole is highlighted as an effective combination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim that inhibits both folic acid synthesis and reduction.
This document provides an overview of anti-fungal drugs. It begins by classifying antifungals based on their chemical structure, sites of action, and mechanisms of action. The major classes discussed include azoles, polyene macrolides, and other antifungals. Azoles like fluconazole and itraconazole are broad-spectrum and inhibit ergosterol synthesis. Amphotericin B binds to ergosterol and forms pores in fungal membranes. Other antifungals discussed are flucytosine, griseofulvin, and nystatin. The document outlines the mechanisms, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects of the main antifungal drug
Macrolides are a class of antibiotics found in streptomycetes. They are natural lactones with a large ring, consisting of 14 to 20 atoms. Macrolides bind to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome and inhibit ribosomal translocation, leading to inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis.
Macrolide antibiotics contain a macrocyclic lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin, the first macrolide discovered in the 1950s, is produced by Streptomyces erythreus. Newer macrolides like roxithromycin and clarithromycin have improved properties compared to erythromycin such as better absorption and tolerability. Macrolides bind to the 50s subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis and thus exhibiting bacteriostatic and sometimes bactericidal activity. They are effective against many gram-positive bacteria and atypical pathogens. Resistance can develop via efflux pumps or methylation of the ribosomal binding site.
This ppt contains information on the classification, structures, uses and SAR related to macrolide antibiotics, lincomycins and chloramphenicol. It was prepared according to PCI syllabus for B.Pharma graduates
This document provides an overview of macrolide antibiotics. It discusses their history, chemical structure, classification, mechanisms of action, spectrum of activity, resistance, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects and clinical applications. Macrolides are a class of antibiotics that work by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. They are effective against many gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. Common macrolides discussed include erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin and ketolides like telithromycin.
This document discusses two classes of protein synthesis inhibitors - tetracyclines and chloramphenicol. It provides details on their mechanisms of action, classifications, spectra of activity, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, resistance, side effects and interactions. Tetracyclines are classified based on source and duration of action. They inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit. Chloramphenicol also inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit. Both classes have broad-spectrum activity and are associated with various side effects.
This document discusses macrolide antibiotics. It begins by introducing macrolides as a class of antibiotics characterized by a macrocyclic lactone ring to which sugars are attached. It then focuses on individual macrolides including erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, roxithromycin, and spiramycin. The document discusses the mechanism of action, spectrum of activity, resistance, pharmacokinetics, uses, interactions, and adverse effects of macrolide antibiotics.
The document discusses various antiprotozoal drugs and their mechanisms of action against different protozoal diseases. It covers drugs used to treat amebiasis, malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, and giardiasis. The key drugs and their mechanisms generally involve inhibiting essential metabolic processes of the parasites, such as DNA, RNA, or protein synthesis, or generating reactive oxygen species to damage the parasites.
This document discusses various antifungal drugs, their mechanisms of action, and clinical uses. It describes how caspofungin inhibits fungal cell wall synthesis, while amphotericin B and nystatin bind to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane. Azoles like ketoconazole, fluconazole and itraconazole inhibit ergosterol synthesis. 5-flucytosine inhibits fungal nucleic acid synthesis. It also discusses the antifungals' mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical indications, resistance and adverse effects. Superficial and systemic fungal infections are outlined.
The document discusses various types of anticancer agents, including their classification and mechanisms of action. It focuses on alkylating agents, specifically nitrogen mustards. Nitrogen mustards were some of the first chemicals used to treat cancer and work by alkylating DNA at the N7 position of guanine. This prevents replication and can activate apoptosis. Examples discussed include mechlorethamine, chlorambucil, melphalan, and cyclophosphamide. Cyclophosphamide must be activated in the body to form an aziridinium ion that alkylates DNA. The document also briefly mentions mitomycin C, an antibiotic used in cancer treatment.
macrolide antibiotics with detailed description of classification and individual drug with mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse effect, uses for undergraduates and post graduates
Sulfonamides were the first effective antimicrobial agents against bacterial infections but resistance has limited their use. They work by inhibiting the bacterial enzyme involved in folate synthesis. Sulfonamides are classified based on duration of action and include sulfadiazine and sulfamethoxazole. Resistance can develop via decreased drug uptake, decreased enzyme affinity, or increased PABA synthesis. Cotrimoxazole is a fixed dose combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole that has synergistic antibacterial effects and lower resistance due to sequential folate pathway inhibition. It is commonly used to treat urinary tract, respiratory, and gastrointestinal infections.
Antimetabolites are a class of chemotherapy drugs that work by interfering with DNA and RNA synthesis in cancer cells. They include folic acid analogs like methotrexate, purine analogs like mercaptopurine, and pyrimidine analogs like 5-fluorouracil. These drugs are used to treat many types of cancer including leukemias, lymphomas, and solid tumors in organs like breast, lung, and colon. While they can be effective, their use is often limited by bone marrow suppression and other toxicities due to their effects on rapidly dividing normal cells.
These are antibiotics having a macrocyclic
lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin
is the first member discovered in the 1950s,
Roxithromycin, Clarithromycin and Azithromycin
are the later additions. Antimicrobial spectrum is narrow,
includes mostly gram-positive and a few gramnegative
bacteria, and overlaps considerably with
that of penicillin G. Erythromycin is highly active
against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae and
Listeria, but penicillin-resistant Staphylococci
and Streptococci are now resistant to erythromycin
also.
All cocci readily develop resistance
to erythromycin, mostly by acquiring the
capacity to pump it out. Resistant Enterobacteriaceae
have been found to produce an erythromycin
esterase. Alteration in the ribosomal binding
site for erythromycin by a plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an important mechanism of
resistance in gram-positive bacteria. All the above
types of resistance are plasmid mediated. Change
in the 50S ribosome by chromosomal mutation
reducing macrolide binding a
Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic discovered in 1952 that inhibits bacterial protein synthesis and growth. It is produced through fermentation of Streptomyces bacteria and extracted for use as an alternative to penicillin in individuals with penicillin allergies. Erythromycin contains a macrocyclic lactone ring with sugars attached and has bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects depending on concentration. It is commonly used to treat respiratory, genital, and eye infections caused by bacteria and chlamydia when penicillin cannot be used.
This document discusses various aminoglycoside, macrolide, and chloramphenicol antibiotics. It provides details on streptomycin, an aminoglycoside antibiotic derived from Streptomyces griseus. It describes the chemical structure and classification of aminoglycosides. Common side effects of aminoglycosides include ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Macrolides like erythromycin work by binding to bacterial ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis. Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that works by inhibiting bacterial ribosomes. Rifampicin is a semi-synthetic rifamycin antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis and leprosy by inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase.
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation. Antineoplastic agents treat cancer through various modalities like surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Chemotherapy uses cytotoxic drugs that destroy cancer cells but also affect rapidly dividing normal cells, causing toxicity. These drugs include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, plant derivatives, antibiotics, and hormones. They work by damaging DNA, inhibiting cell cycle progression, or suppressing hormone secretion. Resistance can develop through decreased drug accumulation, insufficient activation, increased inactivation, or repair of drug-induced DNA lesions.
The macrolide class of antibiotics consists of natural and semi-synthetic products derived from fungi and actinomycetes. They contain 12-16 member lactone rings and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit. Macrolides are effective against gram-positive bacteria and atypical pathogens. Common macrolides include erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin and tylosin which are used to treat respiratory, gastrointestinal and other infections in cattle, poultry and other animals. Potential adverse effects include injection site reactions and gastrointestinal disturbances.
This document discusses macrolide antibiotics, including their mechanism of action, types, and uses. It describes several macrolide antibiotics like erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, and roxithromycin. It covers their mechanisms of action, spectra of activity, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, side effects, and interactions. It also briefly discusses newer macrolides like telithromycin and ketolides, as well as the lincosamide antibiotic clindomycin.
This document summarizes information about the drug dapsone, including:
1. Dapsone was invented in the early 20th century and is commonly used to treat leprosy in combination with other drugs.
2. It is absorbed after oral administration and metabolized in the liver. Common side effects include anemia, nausea, and rashes.
3. Analytical methods like HPLC and spectroscopy can be used to detect and quantify dapsone in samples.
Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces venezuelae that was first isolated in 1947. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation. While effective against a variety of bacteria, chloramphenicol can also inhibit mitochondrial protein synthesis in mammalian cells, causing toxicity issues like bone marrow suppression and the rare but serious gray baby syndrome in neonates. As such, it is reserved for treating serious infections when other antibiotics cannot be used.
This document discusses CSS selectors and properties, explaining that CSS is a query language used to style elements on web pages. It covers basic element, id, class and descendant selectors as well as pseudo-classes for links, checks boxes and more. The document also explains attribute selectors for selecting elements based on attributes and values.
Javascript: The good parts for humans (part 3)Anji Beeravalli
This document discusses different patterns for invoking functions and setting the value of 'this' in JavaScript. It covers: the method invocation pattern where 'this' refers to the object containing the method; the function invocation pattern where 'this' defaults to the global object; the constructor invocation pattern where 'this' refers to a new object created; and the apply invocation pattern where 'this' is explicitly set as the first parameter of the apply method.
In this presentation, I will give you a brief overview of modelling your business using a canvas. After this presentation you will understand various building blocks of the canvas.
This document provides an overview of macrolide antibiotics. It discusses their history, chemical structure, classification, mechanisms of action, spectrum of activity, resistance, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects and clinical applications. Macrolides are a class of antibiotics that work by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. They are effective against many gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. Common macrolides discussed include erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin and ketolides like telithromycin.
This document discusses two classes of protein synthesis inhibitors - tetracyclines and chloramphenicol. It provides details on their mechanisms of action, classifications, spectra of activity, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, resistance, side effects and interactions. Tetracyclines are classified based on source and duration of action. They inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit. Chloramphenicol also inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit. Both classes have broad-spectrum activity and are associated with various side effects.
This document discusses macrolide antibiotics. It begins by introducing macrolides as a class of antibiotics characterized by a macrocyclic lactone ring to which sugars are attached. It then focuses on individual macrolides including erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, roxithromycin, and spiramycin. The document discusses the mechanism of action, spectrum of activity, resistance, pharmacokinetics, uses, interactions, and adverse effects of macrolide antibiotics.
The document discusses various antiprotozoal drugs and their mechanisms of action against different protozoal diseases. It covers drugs used to treat amebiasis, malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, and giardiasis. The key drugs and their mechanisms generally involve inhibiting essential metabolic processes of the parasites, such as DNA, RNA, or protein synthesis, or generating reactive oxygen species to damage the parasites.
This document discusses various antifungal drugs, their mechanisms of action, and clinical uses. It describes how caspofungin inhibits fungal cell wall synthesis, while amphotericin B and nystatin bind to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane. Azoles like ketoconazole, fluconazole and itraconazole inhibit ergosterol synthesis. 5-flucytosine inhibits fungal nucleic acid synthesis. It also discusses the antifungals' mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical indications, resistance and adverse effects. Superficial and systemic fungal infections are outlined.
The document discusses various types of anticancer agents, including their classification and mechanisms of action. It focuses on alkylating agents, specifically nitrogen mustards. Nitrogen mustards were some of the first chemicals used to treat cancer and work by alkylating DNA at the N7 position of guanine. This prevents replication and can activate apoptosis. Examples discussed include mechlorethamine, chlorambucil, melphalan, and cyclophosphamide. Cyclophosphamide must be activated in the body to form an aziridinium ion that alkylates DNA. The document also briefly mentions mitomycin C, an antibiotic used in cancer treatment.
macrolide antibiotics with detailed description of classification and individual drug with mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse effect, uses for undergraduates and post graduates
Sulfonamides were the first effective antimicrobial agents against bacterial infections but resistance has limited their use. They work by inhibiting the bacterial enzyme involved in folate synthesis. Sulfonamides are classified based on duration of action and include sulfadiazine and sulfamethoxazole. Resistance can develop via decreased drug uptake, decreased enzyme affinity, or increased PABA synthesis. Cotrimoxazole is a fixed dose combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole that has synergistic antibacterial effects and lower resistance due to sequential folate pathway inhibition. It is commonly used to treat urinary tract, respiratory, and gastrointestinal infections.
Antimetabolites are a class of chemotherapy drugs that work by interfering with DNA and RNA synthesis in cancer cells. They include folic acid analogs like methotrexate, purine analogs like mercaptopurine, and pyrimidine analogs like 5-fluorouracil. These drugs are used to treat many types of cancer including leukemias, lymphomas, and solid tumors in organs like breast, lung, and colon. While they can be effective, their use is often limited by bone marrow suppression and other toxicities due to their effects on rapidly dividing normal cells.
These are antibiotics having a macrocyclic
lactone ring with attached sugars. Erythromycin
is the first member discovered in the 1950s,
Roxithromycin, Clarithromycin and Azithromycin
are the later additions. Antimicrobial spectrum is narrow,
includes mostly gram-positive and a few gramnegative
bacteria, and overlaps considerably with
that of penicillin G. Erythromycin is highly active
against Str. pyogenes and Str. pneumoniae, N.
gonorrhoeae, Clostridia, C. diphtheriae and
Listeria, but penicillin-resistant Staphylococci
and Streptococci are now resistant to erythromycin
also.
All cocci readily develop resistance
to erythromycin, mostly by acquiring the
capacity to pump it out. Resistant Enterobacteriaceae
have been found to produce an erythromycin
esterase. Alteration in the ribosomal binding
site for erythromycin by a plasmid encoded
methylase enzyme is an important mechanism of
resistance in gram-positive bacteria. All the above
types of resistance are plasmid mediated. Change
in the 50S ribosome by chromosomal mutation
reducing macrolide binding a
Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic discovered in 1952 that inhibits bacterial protein synthesis and growth. It is produced through fermentation of Streptomyces bacteria and extracted for use as an alternative to penicillin in individuals with penicillin allergies. Erythromycin contains a macrocyclic lactone ring with sugars attached and has bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects depending on concentration. It is commonly used to treat respiratory, genital, and eye infections caused by bacteria and chlamydia when penicillin cannot be used.
This document discusses various aminoglycoside, macrolide, and chloramphenicol antibiotics. It provides details on streptomycin, an aminoglycoside antibiotic derived from Streptomyces griseus. It describes the chemical structure and classification of aminoglycosides. Common side effects of aminoglycosides include ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Macrolides like erythromycin work by binding to bacterial ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis. Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that works by inhibiting bacterial ribosomes. Rifampicin is a semi-synthetic rifamycin antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis and leprosy by inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase.
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation. Antineoplastic agents treat cancer through various modalities like surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Chemotherapy uses cytotoxic drugs that destroy cancer cells but also affect rapidly dividing normal cells, causing toxicity. These drugs include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, plant derivatives, antibiotics, and hormones. They work by damaging DNA, inhibiting cell cycle progression, or suppressing hormone secretion. Resistance can develop through decreased drug accumulation, insufficient activation, increased inactivation, or repair of drug-induced DNA lesions.
The macrolide class of antibiotics consists of natural and semi-synthetic products derived from fungi and actinomycetes. They contain 12-16 member lactone rings and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit. Macrolides are effective against gram-positive bacteria and atypical pathogens. Common macrolides include erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin and tylosin which are used to treat respiratory, gastrointestinal and other infections in cattle, poultry and other animals. Potential adverse effects include injection site reactions and gastrointestinal disturbances.
This document discusses macrolide antibiotics, including their mechanism of action, types, and uses. It describes several macrolide antibiotics like erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, and roxithromycin. It covers their mechanisms of action, spectra of activity, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, side effects, and interactions. It also briefly discusses newer macrolides like telithromycin and ketolides, as well as the lincosamide antibiotic clindomycin.
This document summarizes information about the drug dapsone, including:
1. Dapsone was invented in the early 20th century and is commonly used to treat leprosy in combination with other drugs.
2. It is absorbed after oral administration and metabolized in the liver. Common side effects include anemia, nausea, and rashes.
3. Analytical methods like HPLC and spectroscopy can be used to detect and quantify dapsone in samples.
Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces venezuelae that was first isolated in 1947. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation. While effective against a variety of bacteria, chloramphenicol can also inhibit mitochondrial protein synthesis in mammalian cells, causing toxicity issues like bone marrow suppression and the rare but serious gray baby syndrome in neonates. As such, it is reserved for treating serious infections when other antibiotics cannot be used.
This document discusses CSS selectors and properties, explaining that CSS is a query language used to style elements on web pages. It covers basic element, id, class and descendant selectors as well as pseudo-classes for links, checks boxes and more. The document also explains attribute selectors for selecting elements based on attributes and values.
Javascript: The good parts for humans (part 3)Anji Beeravalli
This document discusses different patterns for invoking functions and setting the value of 'this' in JavaScript. It covers: the method invocation pattern where 'this' refers to the object containing the method; the function invocation pattern where 'this' defaults to the global object; the constructor invocation pattern where 'this' refers to a new object created; and the apply invocation pattern where 'this' is explicitly set as the first parameter of the apply method.
In this presentation, I will give you a brief overview of modelling your business using a canvas. After this presentation you will understand various building blocks of the canvas.
This document provides information about Kenneth Hellem and Seed Nordic Startup Factory. It includes slides on how to create a successful startup business and adapting the Lean Canvas model. The Lean Canvas slide provides an example for Seed Nordic Startup Factory, describing the problem it solves, its value proposition, customer segments, and key metrics. The document promotes using the Lean Canvas and Business Model Canvas tools to plan new businesses and startups.
Smart Services is an IT software services company based in Vietnam that offers custom software development, products, and outsourcing. It focuses on mobile app development, customized software, and web applications for industries like retail, transportation, e-commerce, and telecom. The company uses skills in languages like .NET, Java, and frameworks like .NET, PHP, and mobile platforms to develop customized solutions through a dedicated process while ensuring clients' intellectual property is protected.
El documento presenta un análisis de competencia entre cámaras Sony Cybershot HX200V, Fujifilm Finepix HS-25, Nikon Coolpix P510 y Canon Powershot SX40. Compara sus especificaciones técnicas, valores de mercado, disponibilidad en diferentes plataformas de venta y presencia en redes sociales.
El documento presenta un análisis de competencia entre cámaras Sony Cybershot HX200V, Fujifilm Finepix HS-25, Nikon Coolpix P510 y Canon Powershot SX40. Compara sus especificaciones técnicas, valores de mercado, disponibilidad en diferentes plataformas de venta minorista, mayorista y su presencia en redes sociales.
The document discusses chemotherapy and the treatment of leprosy. It explains that chemotherapy uses chemicals to kill microorganisms without damaging host tissues. Effective drugs target essential bacterial biochemical reactions like energy production, growth, and replication that differ from human cells. Leprosy is caused by Mycobacterium leprae and results in skin lesions and nerve damage. Modern treatments include dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine which act on bacterial DNA, RNA, and folate synthesis pathways. Common side effects are also summarized.
ANTI TUBERCULAR DRUGS AND THEIR ACTIONS.VishnuK746257
This document discusses the anti tubercular drugs. It provides information about the classification[first line (isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, streptomycin) and second line drugs(ethionamide,prothionamide, cycloserine, para amino salicylic acid and fluoroquinolones)], mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects, dose and brand names of antitubercular drugs.
Tuberculosis incidence in india and world
Leprosy is caused by Mycobacterium leprae and affects host defenses. The WHO recommends multidrug therapy (MDT) combinations including rifampicin, clofazimine, and dapsone to treat leprosy. Dapsone is effective but can cause hematological side effects like anemia. Rifampicin is highly bactericidal against M. leprae. Clofazimine has anti-inflammatory effects useful for treating lepra reactions. MDT aims to eliminate persistent bacteria and prevent resistance while shortening treatment duration. Nurses must monitor for serious adverse effects and reactions during leprosy treatment.
Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae that attacks the nervous system and skin. It causes numbness and visible deformities as it destroys nerves and cartilage in affected areas over time. The diagnosis is made based on sensory loss and skin lesions. Treatment involves multidrug regimens containing dapsone, clofazimine, and rifampicin over the course of 6 months to 2 years depending on the classification of paucibacillary or multibacillary leprosy. Side effects of the drugs include rashes, discolored skin, and severe itching which usually resolve after treatment completion.
The document discusses anti-neoplastic agents used for cancer treatment. It describes how cancer is characterized by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division that produces tumors. It then classifies cancers and lists different treatment approaches including surgery, radiation, immunotherapy and chemotherapy using drugs. The majority of the document focuses on describing various classes of chemotherapeutic agents, providing examples of drugs within each class, and discussing their mechanisms of action, administration, metabolism and toxicity profiles.
This document discusses anti-neoplastic agents used for cancer treatment. It describes how cancer is characterized by abnormal cell division and spread. Anti-cancer treatments include surgery, radiation, immunotherapy and chemotherapy using drugs that kill cancer cells. Common classes of chemotherapeutic drugs discussed include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, antibiotics, and plant products. Specific drugs like mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, chlorambucil and their mechanisms of action, uses, and toxicities are explained.
Anusha Shaji discusses several drugs used to treat leprosy, including dapsone, clofazimine, rifampin, and ethionamide. Dapsone inhibits folic acid synthesis in Mycobacterium leprae. Clofazimine binds to DNA and generates toxic oxygen radicals. Rifampin is bactericidal and renders patients noncontagious within a week. However, resistance can develop with rifampin alone. Ethionamide has antileprotic activity but causes hepatotoxicity in 10% of patients. Ofloxacin is also highly active against M. leprae.
Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and commonly affects the lungs. It can be transmitted through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. TB is diagnosed through chest x-rays, sputum examination, tuberculin tests, and PCR analysis. The first-line drugs isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol are used to treat TB according to standard 6-month regimens recommended by the WHO. These drugs work by inhibiting cell wall synthesis and other critical bacterial processes. While generally safe, they can cause adverse effects like hepatitis, rashes, and neuropathy, requiring monitoring during treatment.
Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. It primarily affects the skin and peripheral nerves. Left untreated, it can cause permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs, and eyes. It is classified clinically into three main types based on immunity - indeterminate leprosy, borderline tuberculoid leprosy, and borderline lepromatous leprosy. Treatment involves multidrug therapy with dapsone, clofazimine, rifampin and ofloxacin to kill the bacteria and prevent further nerve damage and disability. Reactions during treatment called lepra reactions can cause worsening of symptoms and are managed with anti-inflammatory drugs. Prevention
Leprosy
Tuberculosis
TYB pharmacy
Pharmacology semester VI notes
Pharmacology VI semester
Pharmacology notes
Third year B pharmacy pharmacology notes
Pharmacology unit 3 notes
Pharmacology VI semester notes
Leprosy is a rare disease in the US but more common worldwide, especially in India where approximately 70% of cases occur globally. It is treated via a triple drug regimen recommended by the WHO of Dapsone, Clofazimine, and Rifampin for 6-24 months. Dapsone inhibits folate synthesis and is well absorbed orally, widely distributed in tissues, with a half-life of 1-2 days. It is used to treat tuberculoid and lepromatous leprosy. Clofazimine is a phenazine dye with anti-inflammatory effects that is stored in tissues with a long half-life of 2 months and delayed onset of action. It is used
This document summarizes antiparasitic drugs used to treat various protozoal infections. It discusses the classes of antiparasitic agents and specific drugs used to treat amebiasis, malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, and giardiasis. For each infection, the causative protozoan parasite is identified along with details about the life cycle, classification of treatment drugs, and descriptions of selected drugs including their mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, and adverse effects.
Leprosy is caused by Mycobacterium leprae and M. lepromatosis bacteria, which mainly affect the skin, mucus membranes, and nerves. It is classified based on the Ridley-Jopling system and can be paucibacillary or multibacillary. Leprosy is curable through multidrug therapy recommended by the WHO, which combines dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine. Nepal still has a significant number of new leprosy cases each year, particularly in the Terai region bordering India, though rates have decreased overall.
This document discusses leprosy (Hansen's disease) and treatments for it. It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae which affects nerves and skin. Dapsone is commonly used but resistance has occurred. Multi-drug therapy including dapsone, clofazimine and rifampin is now standard. Reactions during treatment like lepra reactions and sulfone syndrome can occur and are managed with additional drugs like corticosteroids. Classification is based on clinical presentation and number of lesions, with paucibacillary and multibacillary types determining treatment duration.
Drug acting on Leprosy, Antileprotic drugs KundanSable1
This document discusses drugs used to treat leprosy (Hansen's disease), which is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. It describes several classes of antileprotic drugs, including sulfones like dapsone, phenazine derivatives like clofazimine, and antitubercular drugs like rifampin and ethionamide. For each drug class, it outlines the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, adverse effects, and other details. Other antibiotics discussed for treating leprosy include ofloxacin, minocycline, clarithromycin, and moxifloxacin.
This document discusses drugs used to treat leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease. It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae bacteria. The main drugs discussed are:
1. Dapsone, the oldest and most commonly used drug. It works by inhibiting folic acid synthesis. It is effective but can cause anaemia or sulfone syndrome side effects.
2. Clofazimine, which has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties through various mechanisms of action. It accumulates in tissues and has a long half-life allowing intermittent dosing. Side effects include skin discoloration.
3. Other drugs mentioned are rifampin, ofloxacin, min
This document discusses drugs used to treat leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease. It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae bacteria. The main drugs discussed are:
1. Dapsone, the oldest and most commonly used drug. It works by inhibiting folic acid synthesis. It is effective but can cause anaemia.
2. Clofazimine, which has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. It accumulates in tissues and can cause skin discoloration.
3. Other drugs mentioned are rifampin, ofloxacin, minocycline, and clarithromycin which are also used to treat leprosy.
Macrolide antibiotics include erythromycin, roxithromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin. They bind to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, inhibiting protein synthesis. This makes them effective against many gram-positive bacteria and some gram-negatives. Common uses include respiratory, skin, and sexually transmitted infections. Adverse effects can include gastrointestinal issues. Newer macrolides have improved spectra, pharmacokinetics, and tolerability over erythromycin. Lincosamides like lincomycin and clindamycin are structurally similar and have similar mechanisms and uses.
1. Presented by
D.VIJAY KUMAR
09DG1R0013
T.K.R.COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
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2. WHAT IS CHEMOTHERAPY
Chemotherapy can be defined as the
use of chemicals in infectious diseases
to destroy microorganisms without
damaging the host tissues
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3. Basic principle of chemotherapy
The chemical agent should be toxic to
pathogenic micro organism and minimal
effect on host cell.
The selective toxicity is important for these
drugs.
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4. BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALL
BACTERIAL CELLS
Class 1:- Energy production
Class2:- Growth and servival
Class3:- Replication
These reactions are potential targets
for attack by antibacterial drugs.
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5. BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS AS
POTENTIAL TARGETS
Class 1 : These reactions are poor targets ,
for two reasons .
First ,there is no difference between
bacteria and humans cells in the mechanism
for obtaining energy from glucose .
second , even though selective toxic to
ATP synthesis in the bacteria. It could be used
alternative sources like lactate and amino
acids .
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6. Class 2 : These reactions are good
targets because folic acid bio synthesis
pathway takes place only in bacteria not in
human cells. But folic acid is required in
the synthesis of nucleic acid in both human
cells and bacterial cells.
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8. class 3 : These reactions are particularly best
targets for selective toxicity.
There are very distinct differences between
mammalian cells and parasitic cells.
That are :
The synthesis of peptidoglycan
Protein synthesis
Nucleic acid synthesis
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9. What is Leprosy
Leprosy, also known as Hansen's
disease (HD), is a chronic disease caused by
the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae
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10. Signs and symptoms
Neuropathic pain
Skin lesions are the primary external sign.
It causing permanent damage to the skin,
nerves, limbs, and eyes.
Collapsed nose.
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13. Stages of leprosy:
1st stage: bacteria enters through skin, the skin sensation become dull and small
patches develop. In this stage the bacteria multiply in the axoplasm of nerve fibers
causing tingling sensations.
2nd stage: skin becomes thick and wrinkled, ears become swollen, nodules are
formed in skin of nose and throat. These nodules discharge fluid which is highly
infectious.
3rd stage: the bacteria burst out of the nerve cell and go to peripheral tissues and
begin to proliferarate. This results in deformities in hands, feet, face and toes etc.
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15. Chaulmoogra oil
A common pre-modern treatment of leprosy
was chaulmoogra oil.
The oil has long been used in India as an
Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of
leprosy and various skin conditions. It has also
been used in China and Burma
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16. DAPSONE
Dapsone (diamino-diphenyl sulfone) is an
antibacterial most commonly used in
combination with rifampicin and
clofazimine as multidrug therapy (MDT) for
the treatment of Mycobacterium leprae
infections leprosy
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20. PHARMACOKINETICS :
Dapsone is given orally and is well absorbed
and widely distributed through body water
and all tissues.
The plasma half-life is 24-48hrs.
It is metabolised in the liver and excreted
through urine.
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22. RIFAMPICIN:
Rifampicin is rapidly bactericidal to
Mycobacterium leprae .
It can be conveniently given once a monthly.
It is used in combination with dapsone in
multidrug therapy (MDT)
Rifampicin given alone, bacteria develops
resistance .
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23. Mechanism of action:
Rifampicin inhibits bacterial DNA-dependent
RNA synthesis by inhibiting bacterial DNA-
dependent RNA polymerase enzyme.
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24. Pharmacokinetics:
Rifampicin is given orally and is widely
distributed in the tissues and body fluids.
Rifampicin is easily absorbed from
the gastrointestinal tract because
its ester functional group is
quickly hydrolyzed in the bile.
Plasma half-life is 1-5 hrs. ,
Though urinary elimination accounts for only
about 30% of the drug excretion. About 60%
to 65% is excreted through the feces.
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25. UNWANTED EFFECTS:
Orange colour of body fluids.
Hepatotoxicity- liver failure in severe cases
Respiratory problems- breathlessness
Cutaneous - flushing, , rash, redness and
watering of eyes.
Abdominal - nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramps with or without diarrhoea.
Flu-like symptoms - fever, headache.
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26. CLOFAZIMINE:
Clofazimine is a fat-soluble riminophenazine
dye used in combination with rifampicin and
dapsone as multidrug therapy (MDT) for the
treatment of leprosy.
It has been used investigationally in
combination with other antimycobacterial
drugs to treat Mycobacterium-
avium infections in AIDS patients
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28. Mechanism of action:
Clofazimine works by binding to the guanine
bases of bacterial DNA, thereby blocking the
template function of the DNA and inhibiting
bacterial proliferation.
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29. Pharmacokinetics:
Clofazimine is given orally and is widely
distributed in the tissues and body fluids.
But clofazimine has a very long half life of
about 70 days.
It is metabolised in the liver and excreted
through urine.
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30. Unwanted effects:
Reddish colour of urine.
Clofazimine produces pink to brownish skin
pigmentation in 75-100% of patients within a
few weeks, as well as similar discoloration of
most body fluids and secretions.
These discolorations are reversible but may
take months to years to disappear.
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31. H.P.RANG & M.M. DALE, TEXT BOOK OF PHARMACOLOGY,5th EDITION ,PG NO: 620-653
K.D.TRIPATHI,TEXT BOOK OF PHARMACOLOGY,PG NO:335-41
R.S.SATOSKAR, PHARMACOLOGY AND PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS,21ST EDITION,PG NO:755-
59
SALIL K BHATTACHARYA, PARANTAPA SEN, ARUNABHA RAY, PHARMACOLOGY,SECOND
EDITION,PG NO:413-416
Padmaja Udaykumar,, textbook of Medical Pharmacology,
Second Edition, Pg no:337-343
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