This document discusses autacoids, which are locally acting hormones. It specifically focuses on histamine and serotonin, which are amine-derived autacoids. Histamine is produced from the amino acid histidine and is important in inflammation and allergic reactions. It is released from mast cells and basophils. Histamine causes effects through various organ systems and is broken down by histamine-N-methyltransferase and diamine oxidase. Antihistamines work by competing with histamine for H1 receptors. Serotonin is derived from tryptophan and is important in vasoconstriction, mood, sleep, and appetite, among other roles. It is found abundantly in the gastrointestinal tract and blood
Antidepressants are a class of medication used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain conditions and to help manage addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting
Histamine is a biogenic amine present in many tissues that functions as a neurotransmitter and is involved in inflammatory and hypersensitivity reactions. It is synthesized from the amino acid histidine. Histamine acts through multiple receptor subtypes and is involved in various physiological processes like gastric acid secretion, smooth muscle contraction, and allergic responses. Antihistamines competitively inhibit histamine receptors, with first generation antihistamines having sedative effects and second generation ones having minimal side effects. They are used to treat allergic disorders, as antiemetics, and for gastric acid reduction with H2 blockers. Concerns have been raised about impurities in the H2 blocker ranitidine. While H3
This document discusses antihistamines and their classification, mechanisms of action, and effects. It describes first and second generation antihistamines. First generation drugs like dimenhydrinate are highly sedating and act as H1 receptor antagonists to reduce allergic reactions. Second generation drugs like astemizole have less sedation and do not cross the blood brain barrier. Antihistamines are used to treat allergic conditions by blocking the effects of histamine at receptor sites and providing relief from symptoms.
Serotonin syndrome is a potentially life-threatening adverse drug reaction that results from excess serotonin activity in the central nervous system. It most commonly occurs when two or more serotonergic drugs are taken together, such as a combination of antidepressants. Symptoms range from tremors and diarrhea in mild cases to delirium, muscle rigidity, and hyperthermia in more severe cases. Treatment involves discontinuing the precipitating drugs, providing supportive care, and administering drugs that block serotonin receptors like cyproheptadine to counteract excess serotonin activity. Prevention relies on awareness of potential drug interactions and avoiding unnecessary combinations of serotonergic medications.
This document discusses different types of volume expanders used to increase blood volume, including crystalloids like normal saline and Ringer's lactate, as well as colloids like albumin, dextrans, gelatin polymers, and hydroxyethyl starch. It provides details on the composition and uses of various fluids, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. The ideal properties of volume expanders are described. Crystalloids expand extracellular volume while colloids are better at expanding plasma volume due to their larger size, though some colloids can interfere with coagulation or cause allergic reactions.
Generic Elavil (Tryptomer Tablets) is used for the relief of symptoms of depression.
It is also used for relief of nerve pain, for example shooting, stabbing or burning pains.
Antidepressants are a class of medication used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain conditions and to help manage addictions. Common side-effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, sexual dysfunction, and emotional blunting
Histamine is a biogenic amine present in many tissues that functions as a neurotransmitter and is involved in inflammatory and hypersensitivity reactions. It is synthesized from the amino acid histidine. Histamine acts through multiple receptor subtypes and is involved in various physiological processes like gastric acid secretion, smooth muscle contraction, and allergic responses. Antihistamines competitively inhibit histamine receptors, with first generation antihistamines having sedative effects and second generation ones having minimal side effects. They are used to treat allergic disorders, as antiemetics, and for gastric acid reduction with H2 blockers. Concerns have been raised about impurities in the H2 blocker ranitidine. While H3
This document discusses antihistamines and their classification, mechanisms of action, and effects. It describes first and second generation antihistamines. First generation drugs like dimenhydrinate are highly sedating and act as H1 receptor antagonists to reduce allergic reactions. Second generation drugs like astemizole have less sedation and do not cross the blood brain barrier. Antihistamines are used to treat allergic conditions by blocking the effects of histamine at receptor sites and providing relief from symptoms.
Serotonin syndrome is a potentially life-threatening adverse drug reaction that results from excess serotonin activity in the central nervous system. It most commonly occurs when two or more serotonergic drugs are taken together, such as a combination of antidepressants. Symptoms range from tremors and diarrhea in mild cases to delirium, muscle rigidity, and hyperthermia in more severe cases. Treatment involves discontinuing the precipitating drugs, providing supportive care, and administering drugs that block serotonin receptors like cyproheptadine to counteract excess serotonin activity. Prevention relies on awareness of potential drug interactions and avoiding unnecessary combinations of serotonergic medications.
This document discusses different types of volume expanders used to increase blood volume, including crystalloids like normal saline and Ringer's lactate, as well as colloids like albumin, dextrans, gelatin polymers, and hydroxyethyl starch. It provides details on the composition and uses of various fluids, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. The ideal properties of volume expanders are described. Crystalloids expand extracellular volume while colloids are better at expanding plasma volume due to their larger size, though some colloids can interfere with coagulation or cause allergic reactions.
Generic Elavil (Tryptomer Tablets) is used for the relief of symptoms of depression.
It is also used for relief of nerve pain, for example shooting, stabbing or burning pains.
This document discusses the autonomic nervous system and sympathomimetic drugs. It defines sympathomimetic drugs as those that mimic the actions of epinephrine or norepinephrine on the sympathetic nervous system. The document classifies sympathomimetics based on their chemical structure, mode of action, and therapeutic uses. It also describes the receptors these drugs act on, including alpha, beta, and dopamine receptors. The pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses of various sympathomimetic drugs like epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, isoproterenol, phenylephrine, and amphetamines are explained in detail.
This document discusses histamine, an endogenous amine involved in various physiological processes. It is synthesized from histidine and stored in mast cells and basophils. Histamine acts through four receptors (H1-H4) and causes effects such as vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and smooth muscle contraction. It is involved in allergic reactions and regulation of acid secretion. Histamine's actions can be blocked by antihistamines, which competitively inhibit histamine receptors and are used to treat allergic disorders and motion sickness. Common side effects of antihistamines include sedation and anticholinergic effects.
This document discusses histamine and antihistamines. It provides details on histamine including its synthesis, storage, receptors, and role in allergic reactions and inflammation. It then describes first and second generation antihistamines that act as H1 receptor antagonists to relieve symptoms of allergic rhinitis, urticaria, and other conditions by blocking the effects of histamine. The patient described has seasonal allergic rhinitis, so a second generation antihistamine with fewer side effects would be most suitable. First generation antihistamines that cause drowsiness should be avoided.
This document provides an overview of the pharmacology of dopamine. It discusses dopamine synthesis, receptors, pathways in the brain, and the role of dopamine in conditions like Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and addiction. Dopamine is synthesized from phenylalanine and tyrosine and acts on D1-like and D2-like receptors in the mesolimbic, mesocortical, and nigrostriatal pathways. Imbalances in dopaminergic signaling are implicated in disorders such as Parkinson's, schizophrenia, and ADHD. Drugs that modify dopamine transmission are used to treat these conditions.
This document discusses various autacoids, including histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins, and thromboxanes. It provides details on their classification, synthesis, mechanisms of action, pharmacological effects, clinical uses, and antagonists. Histamine and serotonin are classified as amine autacoids derived from amino acids and act as inflammatory mediators. Prostaglandins and thromboxanes are eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid that play important roles in inflammation and platelet aggregation. The document outlines the physiological roles and clinical applications of agonists and antagonists that target histamine, serotonin, and prostaglandin receptors.
Adrenaline causes several effects on the body including increasing the pulse rate and blood glucose levels to provide more energy to muscles, as well as increasing breathing rate to deliver more oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. It also causes physical reactions like sweating, goosebumps, hair standing on end, dilated pupils, and pale skin as blood is redirected away from the skin.
5-Hydroxytryptamine & it’s Antagonist is a Topic in Pharmacology which will defiantly Help You in pharmacy field All information is related to pharmacology drug acting and it's effect on body. it is collage project given by our department i would like to share with you.
This document discusses cholinergic and anticholinergic drugs. It describes the cholinergic receptors, cholinergic agents that act directly or indirectly on these receptors, and examples of each type of drug. The actions of cholinergic drugs are also summarized, such as decreasing heart rate and relaxing smooth muscles. Anti-cholinergic drugs are then covered, including examples, mechanisms of action, uses such as for spasms and as pre-anesthetics, and adverse effects like dry mouth.
This document discusses the use of antidepressants in treating neuropathic pain disorders. It notes that tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline, desipramine, and nortriptyline as well as SNRIs like duloxetine and venlafaxine can be effective for peripheral diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin. Duloxetine is specifically approved for peripheral diabetic neuropathy. While not FDA-approved for pain, TCAs and SNRIs provide analgesic effects independent of their antidepressant effects through improvements in insomnia, anxiety, and depression. Bupropion may also help neuropathic pain. The document recommends TCAs, SNRIs
This document discusses sedative-hypnotic drugs, focusing on barbiturates and benzodiazepines. It describes how barbiturates produce a dose-dependent sedative and hypnotic effect by potentiating GABAergic neurotransmission through direct activation of GABA receptors. Barbiturates are well absorbed orally but demonstrate variability in protein binding and passage through biological barriers. Common uses include anesthesia and seizure treatment, but they can cause idiosyncratic reactions and dependence. Benzodiazepines also potentiate GABA receptors to reduce anxiety, induce sedation/hypnosis, cause amnesia, and have anticonvulsant effects in a subtype-specific manner. Their
This document discusses autacoids and serotonin. It defines autacoids as biological agents that act locally at the site of synthesis and release, like local hormones. Two important amine autacoids are histamine and serotonin. Histamine is stored in mast cell granules and plays roles in hypersensitivity, tissue injury, and gastric acid secretion. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan and acts as a neurotransmitter and in gastrointestinal functions. The document describes the receptors, biosynthesis, metabolism, and pharmacological actions of histamine and serotonin, as well as the mechanisms and uses of antihistamines and anti-serotonin drugs.
Expt 9- To evaluate the effect of insulin in rabbits at different intervalsMirzaAnwarBaig1
This study evaluated the effect of insulin on rabbits at different time intervals. Rabbits were given 20 units of insulin prepared with saline, HCl, phenol, and glycerin. Blood glucose levels were measured before insulin injection and over the next 5 hours. The results showed that insulin decreased blood glucose levels over time, with the maximum decline occurring at 2 hours, demonstrating insulin's hypoglycemic effect. This confirms that insulin regulates blood glucose levels by absorbing glucose from the blood into cells.
This document summarizes different types of plasma expanders used to treat conditions involving fluid loss such as hemorrhage and shock. There are two main types of volume expanders: crystalloids like saline and colloids made from large insoluble molecules such as dextran, albumin, and gelatin. Common colloid plasma expanders discussed include albumin from human plasma, gelatins produced from collagen, hydroxyethyl starches, dextrans made by bacteria, and hypertonic saline solutions. The document compares the characteristics, mechanisms, and side effects of these different plasma expander options.
The document provides an overview of the autonomic nervous system, including its divisions into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It describes the central and peripheral nervous systems and their roles in sensory input and motor output. It explains that the autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary functions like heart rate and blood pressure control. It compares the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems in terms of their central roots of origin, locations of ganglia, neurotransmitters used, and effects on different organs.
pharmacology of Histamines , Serotonin and its antagonistibrahimussa
Histamine and serotonin are classical autacoids that act as local hormones. Histamine is involved in allergic reactions and is found in mast cells and basophils. It acts on H1, H2, H3 and H4 receptors. H1 receptor antagonists like cetirizine and loratadine are used to treat allergic disorders. Serotonin acts as a neurotransmitter and regulates gastrointestinal motility, blood pressure, and platelet aggregation via 5HT receptors. 5HT receptor antagonists like ondansetron, ketanserin and methysergide are used for conditions like migraine and nausea/vomiting.
This document provides information on the structure and function of skin, treatment of various skin disorders, and drugs used for different skin conditions. It discusses:
- The structure of the epidermis and dermis layers of skin and their functions.
- Topical, systemic, and other modes of treating skin disorders.
- Factors affecting absorption of topical drugs and examples of transdermal patches.
- Classes of drugs categorized by action, vehicles, and skin preparations.
- Specific drugs and classes used to treat conditions like pruritus, seborrhea, alopecia, pigment disorders, ectoparasitic infections, acne, and others.
This document discusses drugs used in the urinary system. It focuses on antidiuretics, which reduce urine volume. The main antidiuretic discussed is vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is produced in the brain and tells the kidneys to conserve water. It is used to treat conditions like diabetes insipidus and bedwetting. Nurses must monitor patients taking antidiuretics for electrolyte imbalances, vital signs, signs of allergic reactions, and stop the medication if hypertension develops.
This document discusses antihelmintic drugs, which are medications that expel parasitic worms from the human or animal body. It categorizes antihelmintics into 6 classes: 1) phenols and derivatives, 2) piperazine derivatives, 3) antimalarial agents, 4) other heterocyclic compounds, 5) natural products, and 6) miscellaneous compounds. Examples of specific antihelmintic drugs are provided for each class, along with their uses and mechanisms of action against parasitic worms.
coagulants in detail with all drugs, mechanism of action, advantages, adverse effect, contraindication with example and pictures.
in simplified manner , easy to understand
This document provides an overview of antihistamines and allergies. It defines antihistamines as drugs that reduce the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. The document discusses the causes of allergies and the role of histamine. It also outlines the different classes of antihistamines, including first generation antihistamines and their associated side effects, as well as newer second generation antihistamines that are more selective. The clinical uses of antihistamines and future directions for allergy treatment are also briefly mentioned.
Antihistamines are drugs that reduce or eliminate the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. There are several classes of antihistamines including first generation, second generation, and third generation. First generation antihistamines are effective but cause more side effects like sedation due to their ability to cross the blood brain barrier. Newer generations have been developed with greater selectivity for peripheral histamine receptors, resulting in fewer side effects. Research continues on developing more selective antihistamines and exploring the anti-inflammatory properties and potential for new treatments.
This document discusses the autonomic nervous system and sympathomimetic drugs. It defines sympathomimetic drugs as those that mimic the actions of epinephrine or norepinephrine on the sympathetic nervous system. The document classifies sympathomimetics based on their chemical structure, mode of action, and therapeutic uses. It also describes the receptors these drugs act on, including alpha, beta, and dopamine receptors. The pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses of various sympathomimetic drugs like epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, isoproterenol, phenylephrine, and amphetamines are explained in detail.
This document discusses histamine, an endogenous amine involved in various physiological processes. It is synthesized from histidine and stored in mast cells and basophils. Histamine acts through four receptors (H1-H4) and causes effects such as vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and smooth muscle contraction. It is involved in allergic reactions and regulation of acid secretion. Histamine's actions can be blocked by antihistamines, which competitively inhibit histamine receptors and are used to treat allergic disorders and motion sickness. Common side effects of antihistamines include sedation and anticholinergic effects.
This document discusses histamine and antihistamines. It provides details on histamine including its synthesis, storage, receptors, and role in allergic reactions and inflammation. It then describes first and second generation antihistamines that act as H1 receptor antagonists to relieve symptoms of allergic rhinitis, urticaria, and other conditions by blocking the effects of histamine. The patient described has seasonal allergic rhinitis, so a second generation antihistamine with fewer side effects would be most suitable. First generation antihistamines that cause drowsiness should be avoided.
This document provides an overview of the pharmacology of dopamine. It discusses dopamine synthesis, receptors, pathways in the brain, and the role of dopamine in conditions like Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and addiction. Dopamine is synthesized from phenylalanine and tyrosine and acts on D1-like and D2-like receptors in the mesolimbic, mesocortical, and nigrostriatal pathways. Imbalances in dopaminergic signaling are implicated in disorders such as Parkinson's, schizophrenia, and ADHD. Drugs that modify dopamine transmission are used to treat these conditions.
This document discusses various autacoids, including histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins, and thromboxanes. It provides details on their classification, synthesis, mechanisms of action, pharmacological effects, clinical uses, and antagonists. Histamine and serotonin are classified as amine autacoids derived from amino acids and act as inflammatory mediators. Prostaglandins and thromboxanes are eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid that play important roles in inflammation and platelet aggregation. The document outlines the physiological roles and clinical applications of agonists and antagonists that target histamine, serotonin, and prostaglandin receptors.
Adrenaline causes several effects on the body including increasing the pulse rate and blood glucose levels to provide more energy to muscles, as well as increasing breathing rate to deliver more oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. It also causes physical reactions like sweating, goosebumps, hair standing on end, dilated pupils, and pale skin as blood is redirected away from the skin.
5-Hydroxytryptamine & it’s Antagonist is a Topic in Pharmacology which will defiantly Help You in pharmacy field All information is related to pharmacology drug acting and it's effect on body. it is collage project given by our department i would like to share with you.
This document discusses cholinergic and anticholinergic drugs. It describes the cholinergic receptors, cholinergic agents that act directly or indirectly on these receptors, and examples of each type of drug. The actions of cholinergic drugs are also summarized, such as decreasing heart rate and relaxing smooth muscles. Anti-cholinergic drugs are then covered, including examples, mechanisms of action, uses such as for spasms and as pre-anesthetics, and adverse effects like dry mouth.
This document discusses the use of antidepressants in treating neuropathic pain disorders. It notes that tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline, desipramine, and nortriptyline as well as SNRIs like duloxetine and venlafaxine can be effective for peripheral diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin. Duloxetine is specifically approved for peripheral diabetic neuropathy. While not FDA-approved for pain, TCAs and SNRIs provide analgesic effects independent of their antidepressant effects through improvements in insomnia, anxiety, and depression. Bupropion may also help neuropathic pain. The document recommends TCAs, SNRIs
This document discusses sedative-hypnotic drugs, focusing on barbiturates and benzodiazepines. It describes how barbiturates produce a dose-dependent sedative and hypnotic effect by potentiating GABAergic neurotransmission through direct activation of GABA receptors. Barbiturates are well absorbed orally but demonstrate variability in protein binding and passage through biological barriers. Common uses include anesthesia and seizure treatment, but they can cause idiosyncratic reactions and dependence. Benzodiazepines also potentiate GABA receptors to reduce anxiety, induce sedation/hypnosis, cause amnesia, and have anticonvulsant effects in a subtype-specific manner. Their
This document discusses autacoids and serotonin. It defines autacoids as biological agents that act locally at the site of synthesis and release, like local hormones. Two important amine autacoids are histamine and serotonin. Histamine is stored in mast cell granules and plays roles in hypersensitivity, tissue injury, and gastric acid secretion. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan and acts as a neurotransmitter and in gastrointestinal functions. The document describes the receptors, biosynthesis, metabolism, and pharmacological actions of histamine and serotonin, as well as the mechanisms and uses of antihistamines and anti-serotonin drugs.
Expt 9- To evaluate the effect of insulin in rabbits at different intervalsMirzaAnwarBaig1
This study evaluated the effect of insulin on rabbits at different time intervals. Rabbits were given 20 units of insulin prepared with saline, HCl, phenol, and glycerin. Blood glucose levels were measured before insulin injection and over the next 5 hours. The results showed that insulin decreased blood glucose levels over time, with the maximum decline occurring at 2 hours, demonstrating insulin's hypoglycemic effect. This confirms that insulin regulates blood glucose levels by absorbing glucose from the blood into cells.
This document summarizes different types of plasma expanders used to treat conditions involving fluid loss such as hemorrhage and shock. There are two main types of volume expanders: crystalloids like saline and colloids made from large insoluble molecules such as dextran, albumin, and gelatin. Common colloid plasma expanders discussed include albumin from human plasma, gelatins produced from collagen, hydroxyethyl starches, dextrans made by bacteria, and hypertonic saline solutions. The document compares the characteristics, mechanisms, and side effects of these different plasma expander options.
The document provides an overview of the autonomic nervous system, including its divisions into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It describes the central and peripheral nervous systems and their roles in sensory input and motor output. It explains that the autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary functions like heart rate and blood pressure control. It compares the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems in terms of their central roots of origin, locations of ganglia, neurotransmitters used, and effects on different organs.
pharmacology of Histamines , Serotonin and its antagonistibrahimussa
Histamine and serotonin are classical autacoids that act as local hormones. Histamine is involved in allergic reactions and is found in mast cells and basophils. It acts on H1, H2, H3 and H4 receptors. H1 receptor antagonists like cetirizine and loratadine are used to treat allergic disorders. Serotonin acts as a neurotransmitter and regulates gastrointestinal motility, blood pressure, and platelet aggregation via 5HT receptors. 5HT receptor antagonists like ondansetron, ketanserin and methysergide are used for conditions like migraine and nausea/vomiting.
This document provides information on the structure and function of skin, treatment of various skin disorders, and drugs used for different skin conditions. It discusses:
- The structure of the epidermis and dermis layers of skin and their functions.
- Topical, systemic, and other modes of treating skin disorders.
- Factors affecting absorption of topical drugs and examples of transdermal patches.
- Classes of drugs categorized by action, vehicles, and skin preparations.
- Specific drugs and classes used to treat conditions like pruritus, seborrhea, alopecia, pigment disorders, ectoparasitic infections, acne, and others.
This document discusses drugs used in the urinary system. It focuses on antidiuretics, which reduce urine volume. The main antidiuretic discussed is vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is produced in the brain and tells the kidneys to conserve water. It is used to treat conditions like diabetes insipidus and bedwetting. Nurses must monitor patients taking antidiuretics for electrolyte imbalances, vital signs, signs of allergic reactions, and stop the medication if hypertension develops.
This document discusses antihelmintic drugs, which are medications that expel parasitic worms from the human or animal body. It categorizes antihelmintics into 6 classes: 1) phenols and derivatives, 2) piperazine derivatives, 3) antimalarial agents, 4) other heterocyclic compounds, 5) natural products, and 6) miscellaneous compounds. Examples of specific antihelmintic drugs are provided for each class, along with their uses and mechanisms of action against parasitic worms.
coagulants in detail with all drugs, mechanism of action, advantages, adverse effect, contraindication with example and pictures.
in simplified manner , easy to understand
This document provides an overview of antihistamines and allergies. It defines antihistamines as drugs that reduce the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. The document discusses the causes of allergies and the role of histamine. It also outlines the different classes of antihistamines, including first generation antihistamines and their associated side effects, as well as newer second generation antihistamines that are more selective. The clinical uses of antihistamines and future directions for allergy treatment are also briefly mentioned.
Antihistamines are drugs that reduce or eliminate the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. There are several classes of antihistamines including first generation, second generation, and third generation. First generation antihistamines are effective but cause more side effects like sedation due to their ability to cross the blood brain barrier. Newer generations have been developed with greater selectivity for peripheral histamine receptors, resulting in fewer side effects. Research continues on developing more selective antihistamines and exploring the anti-inflammatory properties and potential for new treatments.
Autacoids - pharmacological actions and drugs related to them. SIVASWAROOP YARASI
Autacoids or "autocoids" are biological factors which act like local hormones, have a brief duration, and act near the site of synthesis. The word autacoids comes from the Greek "autos" (self) and "acos" (relief, i.e. drug).
This document provides an overview of antihistamines. It defines antihistamines as drugs that reduce the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. The document discusses the causes of allergies and the role of histamine. It outlines the history and classes of antihistamines, including first generation types. The document also discusses the future of antihistamine treatment and research related to new histamine receptor subtypes.
This document provides an overview of antihistamines. It defines antihistamines as drugs that reduce the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. The document discusses the causes of allergies and the role of histamine. It outlines the history and classes of antihistamines, including first generation types. The document also discusses the future of antihistamine treatment and research related to new histamine receptors.
This document provides information about autacoids, which are local hormones that include histamine and serotonin. It focuses on histamine, discussing its sources from mast cells and basophils, mechanisms of release, effects on organ systems, and use of antihistamines to treat allergic reactions. Serotonin is also discussed, including its role in mood, appetite, sleep, and vasoconstriction. The document summarizes the different types of serotonin receptors and their functions.
Histamine is a biologically active amine released from mast cells and basophils in response to allergens and other stimuli, causing allergic reactions and lowering blood pressure. It binds to H1 and H2 receptors. H1 receptors mediate allergic symptoms, lowering blood pressure, bronchoconstriction, and gastric acid secretion. Antihistamines like chlorpheniramine and loratadine block H1 receptors, treating allergies, motion sickness, and insomnia with varying side effects. H2 receptor blockers like cimetidine and ranitidine inhibit gastric acid secretion, treating ulcers and reflux. Second generation antihistamines have fewer anticholinergic and sedative side
Autacoids, also known as local hormones, are naturally occurring substances that have different structures and pharmacological actions. They include decarboxylated amino acids, polypeptides, and eicosanoids. Histamine is one of the most important autacoids and is stored in mast cells. It is released through immunologic or non-immunologic mechanisms to modulate inflammatory and immune responses. Antihistamines work by blocking the H1 receptor and are used to treat various allergic conditions by reducing the effects of histamine. First generation antihistamines are less selective and have more side effects while second generation antihistamines have fewer side effects.
Histamine is a chemical released during allergic reactions that causes symptoms like sneezing, itching, and runny nose. It works by binding to H1 receptors, especially in the nose, lungs, and skin. Antihistamines block this binding and relieve allergy symptoms. First-generation antihistamines like diphenhydramine can cause drowsiness by crossing the blood-brain barrier, while second-generation drugs like loratadine and fexofenadine mainly work in the periphery and have fewer side effects. Antihistamines are used to treat allergic conditions, nausea, motion sickness, and other issues involving the H1 receptor.
This document provides information on autacoids, including histamine and serotonin. It defines autacoids as diverse substances produced locally in the body that have intense biological activity. Autacoids are classified as amine-derived, peptide-derived, or lipid-derived. Histamine is an amine autacoid derived from the amino acid histidine. It plays important roles in inflammation, allergic reactions, and gastric acid secretion. Serotonin is also an amine autacoid derived from tryptophan with roles as a neurotransmitter and in platelet aggregation and intestinal motility. The document discusses the synthesis, receptors, functions, and clinical uses of histamine and serotonin.
This document discusses histamine and antihistamines. It begins by introducing histamine, describing its discovery and roles in allergic reactions and as a neurotransmitter. It then covers histamine's chemistry, distribution in the body, synthesis, storage, and metabolism. The document discusses the four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4) and histamine's pharmacological effects. It also provides details on antihistamines, including their pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action, side effects, and classifications of first versus second generation antihistamines. The document concludes by mentioning clinical uses of histamine and antihistamines for conditions like allergies and gastric hypersecretions.
This document discusses histamine and antihistamine drugs. It begins by introducing histamine as a biogenic amine involved in inflammatory and hypersensitivity reactions. Histamine is synthesized from the amino acid histidine and stored in mast cells. It is involved in processes like gastric acid secretion and allergic responses. Antihistamines work by blocking the action of histamine at receptors. First generation antihistamines are more sedating while second generation ones have less side effects. Common antihistamines and their uses in conditions like allergies and vertigo are described. The document provides an overview of histamine function and the mechanisms of antihistamine drugs.
Histamine is an autacoid that acts as a local hormone and neurotransmitter. It has various functions including mediating inflammation, regulating gut function, and acting as a neurotransmitter. It is produced by basophils and mast cells and stored in these cells as well as neurons. Upon stimulation, histamine is released and binds to four types of G protein-coupled histamine receptors (H1-H4) to produce various effects. First generation antihistamines block H1 receptors and penetrate the blood-brain barrier, causing sedation as an adverse effect. Second generation antihistamines are more selective for H1 receptors and do not cross the blood-brain barrier, reducing adverse effects. Common first and
The document discusses antihistamines and histamine. It begins by defining antihistamines as drugs that reduce the effects of histamine, which is released during allergic reactions. It then discusses the structure, functions, and synthesis of histamine. The document outlines the causes and types of allergies and describes the clinical uses and adverse effects of various classes of antihistamines, including first-generation and newer second-generation drugs. It discusses the actions of histamine at different receptor sites and concludes by summarizing the classification and structures of representative antihistamines.
The document discusses antihistamines and antiallergics. It begins with an introduction to histamine, including its discovery, biosynthesis from histidine, storage in mast cells, and role in allergic responses. It then covers the mechanisms of action of histamine at H1, H2, H3, and H4 receptors. The document discusses first and second generation antihistamines that work by blocking these receptors. Finally, it lists common indications for antihistamine use and potential side effects.
Histamine is a biogenic amine synthesized from histidine. It is widely distributed in humans and other organisms. There are four types of histamine receptors: H1, H2, H3, and H4. H1 receptors cause vasodilation and bronchconstriction and are targeted by antihistamines. H2 receptors stimulate gastric acid secretion. Histamine has physiological roles like neurotransmission and wound healing but can also cause issues like allergic reactions and increased acid production. Agonists like dimaprit activate receptors while antagonists like diphenhydramine and cimetidine block receptor activation to treat conditions involving histamine.
Histamine is an imidazole derivative amine that is produced and stored in mast cells and basophils. It is released during allergic reactions and causes symptoms by activating four histamine receptors - H1, H2, H3, and H4. The document discusses the chemistry, sources, biosynthesis and mechanisms of action of histamine. It also describes the classifications, physiological roles, pathological roles, agonists and antagonists of histamine including their uses and side effects.
This document discusses antihistamines, which are drugs that reduce or eliminate the effects of histamine. Histamine is released during allergic reactions and binds to histamine receptors, causing inflammation. Antihistamines work by competing with histamine for binding sites on receptors. The document describes different types of antihistamines including first generation drugs that have anticholinergic effects and second generation drugs that are more selective. It also discusses the structures, classifications, and mechanisms of antihistamines.
H1 and H2 receptor blockers, also known as antihistamines, are drugs that block the effects of the histamine receptor. There are four types of histamine receptors: H1, H2, H3, and H4. H1 receptor blockers, also called first-generation antihistamines, are used to treat allergic disorders by blocking the H1 receptor. Second-generation antihistamines selectively target only peripheral H1 receptors, reducing side effects. H2 receptor blockers are used to reduce stomach acid production and treat ulcers by blocking the H2 receptor in the stomach. The structures, mechanisms of action, uses and side effects of various first-generation and second-generation
Autacoids are biological factors that act locally like hormones. They have a short half-life and act near their site of synthesis. Major classes include eicosanoids, polypeptides, and decarboxylated amino acids. They are involved in processes like inflammation, allergic reactions, neurotransmission, and gastric acid secretion. Histamine is an inflammatory amine synthesized from histidine. It is stored in mast cells and basophils and released during immunological or chemical stimulation. Histamine has important roles in gastric acid secretion and bronchial constriction. It acts through four G-protein coupled receptors: H1, H2, H3, and H4. Antihistamines block H1 receptors
Skeletal System and division of axial and appendicularRupaSingh83
The skeletal system consists of the bones and joints of the body. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum, which form the core of the body. The appendicular skeleton includes the upper and lower limbs and their attachments. The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement and mineral storage. It is divided into the axial and appendicular skeletons, with over 200 bones that can be classified by shape.
Special Senses (Eye -vision & Ear-hearing).RupaSingh83
The document provides an overview of the special senses and their anatomy and function. It describes the five special senses - vision, hearing, balance, smell, and taste. For vision, it details the anatomy of the eye including the cornea, retina, lens, and other structures. It also discusses common eye defects like macular degeneration and glaucoma. For hearing and balance, it outlines the anatomy of the outer, middle and inner ear including the tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea and semicircular canals. The functions of vision in capturing light and hearing in transducing sound are summarized.
Special Senses eye, ear , nose, tongue pptRupaSingh83
The document discusses the special senses - vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye and ear. The eye contains three layers - outer, middle and inner layers. The ear is divided into outer, middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea for hearing and semi-circular canals for balance. Sensory receptors in these organs detect stimuli and transmit signals to the brain.
The peripheral nervous system has two main subsystems - the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for fight or flight responses while the parasympathetic nervous system helps with rest and digestion. There are also 31 pairs of spinal nerves that carry signals between the brain/spinal cord and the rest of the body. The cranial nerves similarly connect the brain to different parts of the head and neck.
The integumentary system consists of the skin and its accessory structures. The skin is the largest organ of the body and has several layers, including the epidermis and dermis. The epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelium with keratinocytes that produce keratin. The dermis contains collagen, fibers and structures like hair follicles. Accessory structures include hair, nails, and glands. Hair provides protection while glands like sebaceous glands secrete oils to moisturize the skin. The integumentary system acts as a barrier and helps regulate body temperature.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy and physiology (HAP). It discusses the two main branches of science related to HAP - anatomy and physiology. Anatomy is the study of body structures while physiology studies functions. It then describes the six levels of structural organization in the body from chemical to organism level. The major human body systems are identified along with their main organs and functions. Basic life processes like metabolism, homeostasis, and feedback systems that help maintain homeostasis are explained. Finally, some key anatomical terminology used to describe body positions, regions, and directions are defined.
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic autoimmune disorder that causes inflammation of the joints, especially in the hands and feet. It leads to a decline in functional status, work disability, systemic complications, and increased mortality. While the exact cause is unknown, rheumatoid arthritis is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors. The immune system mistakenly attacks the synovium membrane lining the joints, triggering chronic inflammation.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) work by inhibiting the prostaglandin synthase enzymes, namely cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Traditional NSAIDs nonselectively inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2, whereas some newer NSAIDs preferentially or selectively inhibit COX-2. NSAIDs are used to reduce inflammation, fever, and pain in conditions like arthritis but can cause adverse gastrointestinal, renal, and cardiovascular effects. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2 and is used at low doses as an antiplatelet drug to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
The document discusses drugs used to treat gout, including their mechanisms of action and side effects. It describes six main categories of antigout drugs: NSAIDs like indomethacin which reduce inflammation; colchicine which inhibits leukocyte migration; corticosteroids which decrease pain and swelling; uricosuric agents like probenecid and sulfinpyrazone which increase uric acid excretion; and the uric acid synthesis inhibitor allopurinol which competitively inhibits the enzyme xanthine oxidase. The document provides details on the pharmacokinetics, interactions, toxicity and use of each type of antigout drug.
Haematinics are substances that support blood formation and provide suitable conditions for the production of blood components. They contain iron and other nutrients essential for blood metabolism and anaemia treatment. Haematinics include iron supplements, vitamins B12 and folic acid, which help treat anaemias caused by deficiencies in these important nutrients needed for red blood cell production and maturation.
This document discusses coagulants and anticoagulants. It begins by explaining hemostasis, the process of stopping bleeding, which involves vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting. It then describes the coagulation cascade and specific coagulation factors. Coagulants promote clotting and are classified as systemic (e.g. vitamin K, fibrinogen) or local styptics (e.g. thrombin, adrenaline). Anticoagulants prevent clotting and include heparin, warfarin, and antiplatelet drugs like aspirin. Both types of drugs are used to treat thromboembolic conditions.
The document summarizes the male and female reproductive systems. It describes the main functions and structures of each system. For the male reproductive system, it explains spermatogenesis (formation of sperm cells), the journey of sperm, and mechanisms of erection, ejaculation, and hormonal control. The female reproductive system produces and releases eggs and supports pregnancy. Key structures of each system are also outlined.
The reproductive systems in males and females consist of primary and secondary sex organs and glands. The primary function is to perpetuate the species through sexual reproduction. The female reproductive system includes the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina, and vulva. The uterus provides nourishment and protection to the fetus during pregnancy. The male reproductive system includes the penis, scrotum, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and Cowper's glands. The testes produce sperm and the other organs work together to deliver sperm via semen during sexual intercourse.
Haematinics are substances that support blood formation and provide suitable conditions for erythropoiesis. They contain iron and other supporting elements necessary for red blood cell production and maturation to treat anaemias caused by deficiencies in iron, vitamin B12, or folic acid which impair red blood cell formation. Haematinics include oral and parenteral iron preparations as well as vitamins B12 and folic acid, which have specific roles in blood cell formation and metabolism.
Genetics is the study of heredity and genetic variation. It involves DNA, genes, chromosomes, and the mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring. DNA carries the genetic information in cells and is made up of nucleotides with four bases - adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine. Genes are sections of DNA that code for specific proteins. Chromosomes package and carry the DNA, and genes determine traits by dictating which proteins are produced. Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins through the processes of transcription and translation.
This document discusses autacoids, which are locally acting hormones. It focuses on histamine, an important inflammatory mediator. Histamine is formed from the amino acid histidine and is released from mast cells and basophils. It plays a role in inflammation, allergies, and gastric acid secretion. Antihistamines work by competing with histamine for binding sites at H1 receptors. First generation antihistamines easily cross the blood brain barrier and cause sedation, while second generation antihistamines have less side effects. Histamine causes effects in various organ systems, and antihistamines are used to treat allergic diseases, colds, motion sickness, and other conditions.
The reproductive system has several key functions:
1. To produce gametes (sperm and eggs) through processes like spermatogenesis and oogenesis
2. To support the development of offspring through gestation and birth
3. To ensure genetic variation between parents and offspring through meiosis and sexual reproduction
The male reproductive system includes testes, which produce sperm and hormones, and organs like the penis and vas deferens that work together to deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract during intercourse. The female reproductive system includes ovaries, which produce eggs, and a uterus that supports pregnancy and childbirth. Both systems rely on complex hormonal regulation to drive functions like sexual maturation and the reproductive cycle.
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The three meningeal layers - dura, arachnoid, and pia mater - cover the brain and spinal cord. Important dural folds in the brain include the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli. CSF is produced in the brain ventricles and circulates through the subarachnoid space, draining into dural venous sinuses like the superior sagittal sinus. Obstruction of CSF flow can cause hydrocephalus. Venous sinuses drain blood from the brain and include the transverse, sigmoid, cavernous, and petrosal sinuses.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
2. INTRODUCTION
• AUTACOIDS auto=self akos=healing/remedy
• Local Hormones
• An organic substance, such as a hormone, produced in one
part of organism and transported by the blood or lymph to
another part of the organism where it exerts a physiologic
effect on that part.
4. FUNCTIONS
• They take part in:
• Inflammation
• Allergic reactions
• Neurotransmission
• Gastric acid secretion
5. Cont..
• In the CNS they are responsible for
• Wakefulness
• Decreased appetite
• Regulation of temperature
• Secretion of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
• Control BP
• Perception of Pain.
6. AMINE AUTACOIDS
• DERIVED FROM NATURAL AMINO ACIDS
• HISTAMINE AND SEROTONIN are the major autacoids in this class
9. INTRODUCTION
• Imidazole ethylamine
• Formed from the amino acid Histidine
• Important inflammatory mediator
• Potent biogenic amine and plays an
important role in inflammation,
anaphylaxis, allergies, gastric acid
secretion and drug reaction
• As part of an immune response to
foreign pathogens, its produced by
Basophils and mast cells found in
nearby connective tissues.
10. SITES OF HISTAMINERELEASE
1) Mast cell site: Pulmonary tissue (mucosa of bronchial tree)
• Skin
• GIT(intestinal mucosa)
• Conc. Of histamine is particularly high in these tissues
2) Non-mast cell sites:
• CNS (neurons)
• GIT(gastric cells)
• Cells in regenerating or rapidly growing tissues
• Basophils (in the blood)
11. MECHANISM OF RELEASE
• Histamine held by an acidic protein and heparin within
intracellular granules → Granules extrude by exocytosis →
Na+ gets exchanged for histamine
• Substances released during IgG or lgM immunoreactions
release histamine from the mast cells & basophil.
• Chemical & mechanical mast cells injury causes
degranulation of cytoplasmic granules & histamine is
released
• Certain amines accumulate in mast cells due to affinity for
heparin, displace histamine → form heparin liberator
complex → increases permeability of mast cell membrane
and diffuse histamine.
12.
13. ROLE IN ALLERGY:
• Allergies are caused by a hypersensitivity reaction of the antibody class IgE (which are located on mast cells
in the tissues and basophils in the blood)
• When an allergen is encountered, it binds to IgE, which excessively activates the mast cells or basophils,
leading them to release massive amounts of histamines
• These histamines lead to inflammatory responses ranging from runny nose to anaphylactic shock
• If both parents have allergies, you have a 70% chance of having them, if only one parent does, you have a
48% chance (American Academy of Asthma, Allergies and Immunology, Spring 2003)
14.
15.
16. ORGAN SYSTEM EFFECTS OF HISTAMINE
NERVOUS SYSTEM Powerful stimulation of sensory endings, especially nerve mediating
pain and itching
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure
BRONCHIALSMOOTH MUSCLE Increase in sense of bronchoconstriction
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT Contraction of intestinal smooth muscle, large doses of histamine
may cause diarrhea
UTERUS Abortion in pregnant women
SECRETORY TISSUE Stimulation of gastric acid, pepsin & intrinsic factor. Increased
secretion in the small and large intestine
18. Anti-Histamine
• A drug that reduces or eliminates the effects mediated by the chemical
histamine.
• Histamine is released by your body during an allergic reaction and acts on a
specific histamine receptor.
• True antihistamines are only the agents that produce a therapeutic effect
that is mediated by negative modulation of histamine receptors (other
agents may have anti-histaminergic action but are not true antihistamines)
• The term antihistamine only refers to H1 receptor antagonists (actually
inverse agonists)
• Antihistamines compete with histamine for binding sites at the receptors.
• Antihistamine cannot remove the histamine if it is already bound.
22. Mechanism of Action
• The action of all the H1-receptor blockers is qualitatively
similar(block action of histamine at H1 receptors)
• H1 antihistamines antagonize the effects of histamine by competitively
blocking the H1 receptors (competitive antagonism).
• These effects probably reflect binding of the H1 antagonists to
cholinergic, adrenergic, or serotonin receptors
23. Cont..
Sedation
A common effect of first-generation H1 antagonists is sedation, but the
intensityofthiseffectvariesamong chemicalsubgroups
Second-generationH1antagonistshavelittle ornosedativeorstimulant
actions
Local Anesthesia
Several first-generation H1antagonists are potent local anesthetics
They block sodiumchannels in excitable membranesin the same as
procaineandlidocaine
Diphenhydramineandpromethazineareactuallymorepotent than
procaineas local anesthetics
27. Dosage:
Cetirizine (Zyrtec): Tablet - 5-10 mg orally once a day depending upon symptom severity.
Syrup – 5 mg/ 5 mL
Loratadine (Claritin, Tavist), Brompheniramine (Dimetane): Tablet – 10mg once daily
for adults, 5 mg once daily for children 2 to 5 years.
Chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton) – 4 mg orally every 4 - 6 hrs; sustained-release: 8 or
12 mg orally every 8 - 12 hours. Maximum dose: 24 mg/day.
Diphenhydramine (Benadryl): 25 mg to 50 mg (1-2 capsules) per day for adults and
children above 12 years; for children 6 -12 years of age – 25 mg (1 capsule)
Side effects – drowsiness especially in case of first generation antihistamines,
restlessness, nervousness, upset stomach, dry mouth, irritability, difficulty urinating and
sometimes blurred vision.
28. FIRST GENERATION H1 BLOCKERS:
• They are conventional antihistamines.
Pharmacologicalactions:
• Antagonism of histamine:
• Bronchoconstriction.
• Block Contraction of intestine, smooth muscle and triple response.
• Anti-allergic action:
• Most of the manifestationsof type 1 reactions are suppressed.
• CNS:
• Produce variable degree of cns depression, sedation and drowsiness.
• At toxic doses, excitement and convulsions are seen.
• As most of these drugs are lipophilic, easily cross BBB and act on CNS .
29. • Anticholinergic action:
• Dryness of mouth, blurring of vision, constipation, urinary retention.
• At higher doses act as local anesthetics. They block Na channels in
excitable tissues.
30. SECOND GENERATION H1 BLOCKERS:
• Advantages over classical antihistamines:
• Higher H1 selectivitiy: no anticholinergic side effects.
• Do not impair psychomotor performance.
• Absence of CNS depressant property. They poorly cross BBB.
• Additional antiallergic mechanisms apart from histamine blockade: some also inhibit
late phase allergic reaction by acting on leukotrienes or by antiplatelet activating factor
effect.]
• Some of them are long acting.
31.
32. THERAPEUTIC USES:
Allergic diseases:
• Oral antihistamines - of allergic rhinitis and urticaria because histamine is the
principal mediator released by mast cells.
• Ophthalmic antihistamines, such as azelastine , olopatadine ,
ketotifen are useful for the treatment of allergic conjunctivitis.
Common cold:
• symptomatic relief by anticholinergic (reduce rhinorrhoea) and sedative actions.
Motion sickness:
• given 30 – 60 min before journey.
• Because of anticholinergic action.
Preanesthic medication:
• Promethazine as sedative and anticholinergic.
33. • Vertigo:
• Cinnarizine inhibits vestibular sensory nuclei in the inner ear, suppresses postrotatory labyrinthine
reflexes, possibly by reducing stimulated influx of Ca2+ from endolymph into the vestibular sensory
cells.
• Beneficial effects have been reported in Méniére’s disease and other types of vertigo.
• Parkinsonism
• Promethazine and diphenhydramine are used for the treatment of driug induced parkinsonism.
• Cough
• Antihistaminics like chlorpheniramine, diphenhydramine and promethazine are used.
• no selective cough suppressant action, afford symptomatic relief by
sedative and anticholinergic property .
34. ADVERSE EFFECTS:
• Common
• Sedation, drowsiness, lack of concentration, headache, fatigue,
weakness, , etc.
• GIT side effects:
• Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and epigastric discomfort.
• Anticholinergic:
• Dry mouth, blurring of vision, constipation and urinary retention.
35. H2 ANTIHISTAMINE/BLOCKERS
• The selective histamine type 2 receptor antagonists/blockers (H2 blockers) are
widely used in the treatment of acid-peptic disease, including duodenal and
gastric ulcers, gastroesophageal reflux disease and common heartburn.
• The four H2 blockers in current use are available by prescription as well as
over-the-counter, and are some of the most widely used drugs in medicine.
• The H2 receptor blockers act by binding to histamine type 2 receptors on the
basolateral (antiluminal) surface of gastric parietal cells, interfering with
pathways of gastric acid production and secretion.
37. Pharmacology of H2 blockers
• The H2 antagonists are competitive antagonists of histamine at the
parietal cell's H2 receptor.
• They suppress the normal secretion of acid by parietal cells and the
meal-stimulated secretion of acid.
• They accomplish this by two mechanisms: Histamine released
by enterochromaffin-like cells (ECL) in the stomach is blocked from
binding on parietal cell H2 receptors, which stimulate acid secretion;
therefore, other substances that promote acid secretion (such
as gastrin and acetylcholine) have a reduced effect on parietal cells
when the H2 receptors are blocked.
38. Clinical use
• H2-antagonists are used by clinicians in the treatment of acid-related gastrointestinal
conditions, including:[6]
•Peptic ulcer disease (PUD)
•Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD)
•Dyspepsia
•Prevention of stress ulcer (a specific indication of ranitidine)
•Prevention of aspiration pneumonitis during surgery. Oral H2-antagonists reduce gastric acidity
and volume and have shown to reduce the frequency of aspiration pneumonitis.
• People who suffer from infrequent heartburn may take either antacids or H2-receptor
antagonists for treatment.
• The H2-antagonists offer several advantages over antacids, including longer duration of
action (6–10 hours vs 1–2 hours for antacids), greater efficacy, and ability to be used
prophylactically before meals to reduce the chance of heartburn occurring.
40. PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS
First generation anti-histamines for allergies (active ingredients and brandnames):
DRUG BRAND
Brompheniramine – Dimetane
Chlorpheniramine – Chlor-Trimeton
Diphenhydramine – Benadryl
Second generation anti-histamines for allergies (active ingredients and brandnames):
Loratadine
Cetirizine
– Claritin
– Zyrtec
•
.
41. • As sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic
• Antihistamines with CNS depressant action have been used as sedative
and to induce sleep, especially in children.
42. • H2 blockers:
• Gastroselective antihistamines.
• Cemetidine, ranitidine,nizatidine.
• They reduce gastic secretion.
• Treat peptic ulcer
.
• H3 blockers:
• They modulate the histaminergicneurotransmission in brain.
• They have application in obesity, sleep disorders, neuropsychiatricdisoders and cognitive functions.
• Thioperamide and clobenpropit.
• H4 blockers:
• Clobenpropit and thioperamide has partial action.
43. SEROTONIN OR 5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE(5-HT)
• Molecular formula : C10H12ON2
• A monoamine neurotransmitter biochemically
derived from tryptophan.
• Structurally it contains an indole ring, hydroxyl group
and ethyl amine group attached to the ring.
44. • Approximately 90% of the human body's total serotonin is located in
the enterochromaffin cells in the alimentary canal (gut), used to
regulate intestinal movements.
• The remaining amt. is synthesized in serotonergic neurons of the CNS,
where it has various functions including the regulation of mood,
appetite, and sleep.
• Serotonin secreted from the enterochromaffin cells eventually finds its
way out of tissues into the blood. There, it is actively taken up by blood
platelets, which store it. When the platelets bind to a clot, they release
serotonin, where it serves as a vasoconstrictor and helps to regulate
homeostasis and blood clotting.
45. IMPORTANCE OF SEROTONIIN
Serotonin is believed to play a central role in:
• Modulation of vasoconstriction
• Anger
• Aggression
• Body temperature
• Mood
• Sleep
• appetite
• Stimulation of vomiting reflex
• Memory and Learning
46. SOURCES
• Found abundantly in the gut and blood plasma, but it can not enter the
brain.
• Meat and Banana are the direct sources of serotonin.
• Main source: L-tryptophan, an amino acid, which is found in proteins.
So proteins are the main sources of serotonin:
Meat, eggs, milk, fishes
Pulses
• Enough calcium, magnesium and oxygen are also needed for serotonin
production.
• Vitamin B6 also promotes its production.
47. High level of serotonin:
• Obsessive-compulsive disorders e.g. compulsive hand-washing
• Pulmonary vasoconstriction causing an acute or chronic pulmonary
hypertension
• Cardiac fibrosis
Low levels of Serotonin:
• Irritability, Irrational emotions, Sudden
• tears, Sleep disturbances, Depression, Suicidal tendencies
• When we have enough Serotonin we have: Emotional stability, Reduces
aggression, Sleep cycle, Appetite control
48. SYNTHESIS
• Serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid L-
tryptophan by a short metabolic pathway consisting of
enzymes:
Tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH)
49.
50. 5-HT RECEPTORS
• Receptors are divided into 7 types: 5-HT1 to 5-HT7
• 5-HT1 group consist of 5 receptor subtypes:
5-HT1A
5-HT1B
5-HT1D
5-HT1E
5-HT1F
51. 5-HT1A RECEPTORS
• Most extensively distributed of all 5-HT receptors.
• In CNS, these receptors are present in high density in cerebral cortex,
and raphe nucleus.
• Involved in inhibition of discharge of neurons, regulation of production
of behaviour and eating.
• Play an important role in the emergence of anxiety.
• Agonists: Buspiron, Ergotamine, Yohimbine and Antagonists are
Alprenolol, Pindolol, Propranolol.
52. 5-HT1B RECEPTORS
• Present in CNS where they induce presynaptic inhibition and
behavioural effects
• Exhibit vascular effects as well, such as pulmonary vasoconstriction
• Agonists: Ergotamine, Dihydroergotamine, Zolmitriptan
• Antagonists: Yohimbine, Propranolol, Pindolol
53. • The Clinical significance of 5-HT1D receptor is still largely unknown
• The function of 5-HT1E receptor is unknown but it is hypothesized that
they are involved in regulation of memory
• 5-HT1F receptor has a possible role in vascular contraction.
Distribution in brain appears limited
56. 5-HT3 Receptors:
• With the exception of the 5-HT3 receptor, a ligand- gated ion
channel, all other serotonin receptors are G protein-coupled
receptors that activate an intracellular second messenger
cascade to produce an excitatory or inhibitory response
• The 5-HT3 receptor antagonist suppress vomiting and nausea by
inhibiting serotonin binding to the 5-HT3 receptors
57. 5-HT4 Receptors:
• Found on CNS and Myenteric neurons.
• Prucalopride (brand name Resolor, developed by Johnson & Johnson) is
a drug acting as a selective, high affinity 5-HT4 receptor agonist which
targets the impaired motility associated with chronic constipation, thus
normalising bowel movements
5-HT5 Receptors:
• Pharmacological functions of these receptors are unknown. Based on
their localization, it has been speculated that they may be involved in
motor control, anxiety, learning, adaptive behaviour and brain
development.
58. 5-HT6 Receptors:
• The exact clinical significance of these receptors remain still unclear.
Selective antagonist of this type of serotonin receptor have an impact
on behaviour and seem to improve the spatial memory of laboratory
animal
5-HT7 Receptors:
• Expressed abundantly in the vessels and are responsible for persistent
vasodilation. 5-HT7 receptors are also expressed in CNS and in smooth
muscles (in GIT tract).
59. SEROTONIN SYNDROME
• Extremely high levels of serotonin can cause a condition known as
Serotonin Syndrome, with toxic and potentially fatal effects.
• Drugs used to treat SEROTONIN SYNDROME
Non–specific blocking agents: Methysergide, Cyproheptadine
Beta blockers: Propranolol, Pindolol
Benzodiazepines: Lorazepam, Diazepam, Clonazepam
60. MIGRAINE
• 5-HT1 agonists (e.g. Sumatriptan) are first- line therapy for severe migraine and are
effective on cluster headache.
• Many other different drugs are also used in migraine such as Propranolol, valproic
acid. NSAIDs such as aspirin and ibuprofen are often helpful in controlling the pain
of migraine.
VOMITING
• 5-HT3 receptors participate in the vomiting reflex.
• Particularly important in vomiting caused by anti cancer drugs.
Ondansetron is the prototypical 5-HT3 antagonist. Important in the
prevention of nausea and vomiting associated with surgery and cancer
chemotherapy.
61. DEPRESSION
• A class of drugs, such as fluoxetine or sertraline, that inhibit the uptake
of serotonin by neurons of the central nervous system are primarily
used in the treatment of depression and obsessive compulsive disorder
known as SSRIs
• A few of them are: Citalopram (Cipram, Seropram), Fluoxetine (Prozac,
Evorex), Paroxetine (Paxil, Seroxat, Aropax), Sertraline (Zoloft, Lustral,
Serlain)
62. • Biologically active derivatives of 20 C-atoms polyunsaturatedessential fatty acids that are major
lipid derived autacoids.
• Derived from arachidonic acids.
• Two major types of eicosanoids-
Prostaglandins (PGs)
Leukotrienes (LTs)
• The eicosanoids are important local hormones and they may act as circulating hormones as well.
• In the body PGs, TXs and LTsare all derived from eicosa (Referring to 20c atoms) tri, tetra, penta
enoic acids; so that they are collectively called eicosanoids.
LIPID DERIVED AUTACOIDS
64. WHAT ARE PROSTAGLANDINS ?
• Group of hormone-like lipid compounds
• Derived enzymatically from fatty acids
• Every prostaglandin contains unsaturated 20 carbon fatty acids .
• They are produced in many places throughout the body and their target cells are present in the immediate
site of their secretion.
• The prostaglandins, together with the thromboxane and prostacyclin, form the prostanoid class of fatty acid
derivatives, a subclass of eicosanoids.
• They are autocrine and paracrine lipid mediators that act upon platelets, endothelium, uterine and mast
cells. They are synthesized in the cell from the essential fatty acids (EFAs).
RELEASE OF PROSTAGLANDINS
PG involved with inflammation also attract WBC call Phagocytes that eat germs and dead cells, once
injury is healed the affected tissue will release PG to break up the blood clot and remove it since it’s no
longer needed.
66. PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS
1) Regulation of Blood Pressure
PGE2 and PGI2 are vasodilators in vascular beds
Increased blood flow and decreased peripheral resistance
Lower BP
2) Inflammation
PGE1 and PGE2 induce the symptomsof Inflammation
(redness, swelling etc.) due to vasodilation.
3) Reproduction
PGE2 AND PGF2α causes contraction of Uterine
smooth muscles in pregnant women.
67. 4) Pain and Fever
It acts on thermoregulatory centre of hypothalamus
to produce fever
Pyrogens (fever producing agents) promotes PG synthesis
Formation of PGE2 in hypothalamus
Fever associated with Pain
5) Regulation of Gastric secretion
• PG inhibits Gastric secretion
• PG stimulate pancreatic secretion and increase the motility of the intestine leads to diarrhoea
6) Influence on immune system
PGE decreases immunological functions of B and T lymphocytes
68. 7) Effect on respiratory function
PGEs causes bronchial smooth muscle relaxation
PGFs causes bronchial smooth muscle constriction
thus
PGE and PGF oppose the action of each other in the lungs
8) Influence on renal functions
PG increases Glomerular Filtration rate
thus
Promotes Urine Output
9) Effect on platelet aggregation
• PGI2 inhibits platelet aggregation
•Thromboxane and PGE2 promotes platelet aggregation
and blood clotting which might lead to thrombosis
69. 10) Eye
It decreases intraocular pressure
11) CNS
• regulate hormones
• sensitize spinal neurons to pain
71. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THERE IS INCREASEIN
PROSTAGLANDIN SECRETION ?
• Conditions such as arthritis, heavy menstrual bleeding and painful menstrual cramps and
certain types of cancer including colon and breast cancer might happen.
• Anti-inflammatory drugs - aspirin and ibuprofen, work by blocking the action of the
cyclooxygenase enzymes and so reduce prostaglandin levels.
Example:
Mechanism of action of the drug aspirin.
72. WHAT HAPPENS IF TOO FEW
PROSTAGLANDINS ?
• Manufactured prostaglandins can be used to increase prostaglandin levels in the body under certain
circumstances.
• Administration of prostaglandins can induce labour at the end of pregnancy or abortion in the case of an
unwanted pregnancy.
• They can also be used to treat stomach ulcers, glaucoma and congenital heart disease in new born babies.
74. LEUKOTRIENES
• Leukotrienes are a family of eicosanoid inflammatory
mediators produced in leukocytes by
the oxidation of arachidonic acid (AA) and the essential
fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by
the enzyme arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase
75. Types
Cysteinyl leukotrienes
LTC4, LTD4, LTE4 and LTF4 are often called cysteinyl leukotrienes due to the presence of
the amino acid cysteine in their structure.
LTB4
LTB4 is synthesized in vivo from LTA4 by the enzyme LTA4 hydrolase.
Its primary function is to recruit neutrophils to areas of tissue damage, though it also helps
promote the production of inflammatory cytokines by various immune cells. Drugs that block
the actions of LTB4 have shown some efficacy in slowing the progression of neutrophil-
mediated diseases.
LTG4
There has also been postulated the existence of LTG4, a metabolite of LTE4 in which the
cysteinyl moiety has been oxidized to an alpha-keto-acid (i.e.—the cysteine has been
replaced by a pyruvate).
LTB5
Leukotrine B5, along with leukotrine B4, is produced by neutrophils.
77. FUNCTIONS OF LEUKOTRIENES
• Act principally on a subfamily of G protein coupled receptors
• May also act upon peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors
• Involved in asthmatic and allergic reactions and act to sustain inflammatory reactions; several
leukotriene receptor antagonists
• Very important agents in the inflammatory response
• LTB4have a chemotactic effect on migrating neutrophils, and as such help to bring the necessary cells to
the tissue
• Leukotrienes also have a powerful effect in bronchoconstriction and increase vascular permeability.
78. CHRONIC ASTHMA
• Asthma is a common inflammatory illness
• Characterized by airway inflammation and hyper responsiveness to stimuli that produce
bronchoconstriction
• These stimuli include cold air, exercise, a wide variety of allergens and emotional stress–
Extrinsic asthma: It is mostly episodic, less prone to status asthmaticus
Intrinsic asthma: It tends to be perennial, status asthmaticus is more common
79.
80. LEUKOTRIENES IN ASTHMA
• Leukotrienes assist in the pathophysiology of asthma, causing or
potentiating the following symptoms:
• airflow obstruction
• increased secretion of mucus
• mucosal accumulation
• bronchoconstriction
• infiltration of inflammatory cells in the airway wall
81. LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST
Mechanism of Action:
The leukotriene receptor antagonists block the activity of cysteinyl leukotrienes at
their receptors (CysLT1) on bronchial smooth muscle and elsewhere, while the
leukotriene synthesis inhibitors block the synthesis of all leukotrienes by interrupting
the 5-lipoxygenase pathway.
• Attenuates bronchoconstriction and inflammation
Leukotriene Receptor Antagonists
• Zafirlukast (Accolate)
• Montelukast (Singulair)
Leukotriene Synthesis Inhibitor
82.
83.
84. Zafirlukast (Accolate) :
• Avoid at mealtimes
• Take 1 hour before or 2 hours after meals
• Dose:
• Age >11 years old: 20 mg bid
• Child 7-11 years old: 10 mg bid
Montelukast(Singulair):
• Dose:
• Adults: 10 mg
• Child age 6 to 14 years: 5 mg
• Child age 2-5 years: 4 mg
Zileuton (Zyflo):
• Indicated in age only 12 and over
• Dose: 600 mg orally four times daily
• Hepatotoxicity in 5%
• Drug interactions: Warfarin, theophylline,
Propranolol
85. Pharmacological action
1. CVS : LTC4 and LTD4 evoke a brief rise in BP followed by a more prolonged
fall.
LT inc. capillary permeability ,more potent than histamine in causing edema
formation.
LT are imp mediators of inflammation ,they are produced along with PG at
site of injury while LTC4 and D4 cause exudation of plasma, LTB4 attracts the
inflammatory cells which reinforce the reaction.
5HPETE and 5 HETE may facilitate local release of histamine.
86. 2. Smooth muscles :
LTC4 and LTD4 contract smooth muscle . They are potent broncho
constrictors and induce contraction of GIT at low conc.
They also inc. mucus secretion in the airways
3. Afferent nerve:
LTB4 also sensitizes afferents carrying pain impulses, contributes to pain
and tenderness of inflammation
88. WHAT ARE INTERLEUKINS?
• Interleukins are a group of cytokines (secreted proteins and signalling
molecules) that were first seen to be expressed by white blood cells
(leukocytes)
• The majority of interleukins are synthesized by helper CD4 T lymphocytes, as well
as through monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells.
• They promote the development and differentiation of T and B lymphocytes,
and hematopoietic cells.
90. RELEASE OF INTERLEUKINS
interleukins are not stored within cells but are instead
secreted rapidly, and briefly, in response to a stimulus. Once
an interleukin has been produced, it travels to its target cell
and binds to it via a receptor molecule on the cell's surface.
91.
92. HOW DOES IT FUNCTION
Interleukin is essential for transmitting information, activating and
regulating immune cells, propitiates the cell activation, proliferation and
differentiation of T cells and B cells. Interleukin-1 contains IL-1α and IL-1β.
While the former is produced by diverse cells, some specific tissues have the
latter one.
INTERLEUKIN 1
Interleukin 1 alpha and interleukin 1 beta (IL1 alpha and IL1 beta) are
cytokines that participate in the regulation of immune responses,
inflammatory reactions, and hematopoiesis
INTERLEUKIN 2
T lymphocytes regulate the growth and differentiation of T cells and certain B
93. IL 3
IL 3 is a cytokine that regulates hematopoiesis by controlling the production, differentiation
and function of granulocytes and macrophages
IL 4
IL4 is produced by CD4+ T cells specialized in providing help to B cells to proliferate and to
undergo class switch recombination and somatic hypermutation.
IL 5, also known as eosinophil differentiation factor (EDF), is a lineage-specific cytokine for
eosinophilpoiesis.[17][18] It regulates eosinophil growth and activation
94. NAME SOURCE TARGET CELLS FUNCTION
IL-1 MACROPHAGES, B
CELLS, MONOCYTES,
DENDRITIC CELLS
T HELPER CELLS CO-STIMULATION
B CELLS MATURATION & PROLIFERATION
NK CELLS ACTIVATION
MACROPHAGES, ENDOTHELIUM,
OTHER
INFLAMMATION, SMALL AMOUNTS INDUCE ACUTE PHASE
REACTION, LARGE AMOUNTS INDUCE FEVER
IL-2 TH1-CELLS ACTIVATEDT CELLS AND B CELLS, NK
CELLS, MACROPHAGES,
OLIGODENDROCYTES
STIMULATES GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION OF T CELL
RESPONSE. CAN BE USED IN IMMUNOTHERAPY TO TREAT
CANCER OR SUPPRESSED FOR TRANSPLANT PATIENTS.
HAS ALSO BEEN USED IN CLINICAL TRIALS (ESPIRIT.
STALWART) TO RAISE CD4 COUNTS IN HIV POSITIVE
PATIENTS.
IL-3 ACTIVATEDT HELPER
CELLS, MAST CELLS, NK
CELLS, ENDOTHELIUM,
EOSINOPHILS
HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS DIFFERENTIATION AND PROLIFERATION OF MYELOID
PROGENITOR CELLS TO E.G.
ERYTHROCYTES, GRANULOCYTES
MAST CELLS GROWTH AND HISTAMINE RELEASE
IL-4 TH2 CELLS, JUST
ACTIVATEDNAÏVE CD4+
CELL, MEMORY CD4+
CELLS, MAST
CELLS, MACROPHAGES
ACTIVATEDB CELLS PROLIFERATION AND
DIFFERENTIATION, IGG1 AND IGE SYNTHESIS. IMPORTANT
ROLE IN ALLERGIC RESPONSE (IGE)
T CELLS PROLIFERATION
ENDOTHELIUM
LIST OF HUMAN INTERLEUKINS
95. IL-5
TH2 CELLS, MAST
CELLS, EOSINOPHILS
EOSINOPHILS PRODUCTION
B CELLS DIFFERENTIATION, IGA PRODUCTION
IL-6
MACROPHAGES, TH2
CELLS, B CELLS,
ASTROCYTES,ENDOTHE
LIUM
ACTIVATEDB CELLS DIFFERENTIATION INTO PLASMA CELLS
PLASMA CELLS ANTIBODY SECRETION
HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS DIFFERENTIATION
T CELLS, OTHERS
INDUCES ACUTE PHASE
REACTION, HAEMATOPOIESIS, DIFFERENTIATI
ON, INFLAMMATION
IL-7
BONE MARROW
STROMAL CELLS AND
THYMUS STROMAL
CELLS
PRE/PRO-B CELL, PRE/PRO-T
CELL, NK CELLS
DIFFERENTIATION AND PROLIFERATION OF
LYMPHOID PROGENITOR CELLS, INVOLVED IN
B, T,AND NK CELL SURVIVAL, DEVELOPMENT,
AND HOMEOSTASIS,
↑PROINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES
IL-8 OR
CXCL8
MACROPHAGES, LYMPH
OCYTES, EPITHELIAL
CELLS, ENDOTHELIAL
NEUTROPHILS, BASOPHILS,
LYMPHOCYTES
NEUTROPHIL CHEMOTAXIS
CELLS
96. IL-9
TH2 CELLS, SPECIFICALLY BY
CD4+ HELPER CELLS
T CELLS, B CELLS POTENTIATES IGM, IGG, IGE, STIMULATES MAST CELLS
IL-10
MONOCYTES, TH2 CELLS, CD8+
T CELLS, MAST
CELLS, MACROPHAGES,B
CELL SUBSET
MACROPHAGES CYTOKINE PRODUCTION
B CELLS ACTIVATION
MAST CELLS
TH1 CELLS INHIBITS TH1 CYTOKINE PRODUCTION (IFN-Γ, TNF-Β, IL-2)
TH2 CELLS STIMULATION
IL-11 BONE MARROW STROMA BONE MARROW STROMA
ACUTE PHASE
PROTEIN PRODUCTION, OSTEOCLAST FORMATION
IL-12
DENDRITIC CELLS, B CELLS, T
CELLS,MACROPHAGES
ACTIVATEDT CELLS
DIFFERENTIATION INTO CYTOTOXICT CELLS WITH IL-
2, ↑ IFN-Γ, TNF-Α, ↓ IL-10
NK CELLS ↑ IFN-Γ, TNF-Α
IL-13
ACTIVATEDTH2 CELLS, MAST
CELLS,NK CELLS
TH2-CELLS, B CELLS,
MACROPHAGES
STIMULATES GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION OF B
CELLS (IGE), INHIBITS TH1-CELLS AND THE PRODUCTION
OF MACROPHAGE INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES (E.G. IL-1,
IL-6), ↓ IL-8, IL-10, IL-12
97. IL-14
T CELLS AND CERTAIN
MALIGNANT B CELLS
ACTIVATEDB CELLS
CONTROLS THE GROWTH AND PROLIFERATION
OF B CELLS, INHIBITS IG SECRETION
IL-15
MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTES
(AND SOME OTHER CELLS),
ESPECIALLY MACROPHAGES
FOLLOWING INFECTION BY
VIRUS(ES)
T CELLS, ACTIVATED B
CELLS
INDUCES PRODUCTION OF NATURAL KILLER CELLS
IL-16
LYMPHOCYTES, EPITHELIAL
CELLS, EOSINOPHILS, CD8+ T
CELLS
CD4+ T CELLS (TH-CELLS) CD4+ CHEMO ATTRACTANT
IL-17 T HELPER 17 CELLS (TH17)
EPITHELIUM,
ENDOTHELIUM, OTHER
OSTEOCLAST GENESIS, ANGIOGENESIS, ↑
INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES
IL-18 MACROPHAGES TH1 CELLS, NK CELLS
INDUCES PRODUCTION OF IFNΓ, ↑ NK CELL
ACTIVITY
IL-20
ACTIVATEDKERATINOCYTES AND
MONOCYTES
REGULATES PROLIFERATION AND DIFFERENTIATION
OF KERATINOCYTES
98. IL-21
ACTIVATED T HELPER CELLS, NKT
CELLS
ALL LYMPHOCYTES,
DENDRITIC CELLS
COSTIMULATES ACTIVATION AND PROLIFERATION OF CD8+ T
CELLS, AUGMENT NK CYTOTOXICITY,AUGMENTS CD40-DRIVEN B
CELL PROLIFERATION, DIFFERENTIATION AND ISOTYPE
SWITCHING, PROMOTES DIFFERENTIATION OF TH17 CELLS
IL-22 T HELPER 17 CELLS (TH17)
PRODUCTION OF DEFENSINS FROM EPITHELIAL
CELLS. ACTIVATESSTAT1ANDSTAT3AND INCREASES PRODUCTION
OF ACUTE PHASE PROTEINS SUCH ASSERUM AMYLOID A, ALPHA
1-ANTICHYMOTRYPSIN AND HAPTOGLOBIN IN HEPATOMA CELL
LINES
IL-23
MACROPHAGES, DENDRITIC
CELLS
MAINTENANCE OF IL-17 PRODUCING
CELLS, INCREASES ANGIOGENESIS BUT REDUCES CD8 T-CELL
INFILTRATION
IL-24
MELANOCYTES, KERATINOCYTES
,MONOCYTES, T CELLS
PLAYSIMPORTANT ROLES IN TUMOR SUPPRESSION, WOUND
HEALING AND PSORIASIS BY INFLUENCING CELL SURVIVAL,
INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINE EXPRESSION.
IL-25
T CELLS, MAST
CELLS, EOSINOPHILS,MACROPH
AGES, MUCOSAL EPITHELIAL
CELLS
INDUCES THE PRODUCTION IL-4, IL-5 AND IL-13, WHICH
STIMULATE EOSINOPHIL EXPANSION
99. IL-26 T CELLS, MONOCYTES
ENHANCES SECRETIONOF IL-10 AND IL-8 AND CELL SURFACE EXPRESSION OF
CD54 ON EPITHELIAL CELLS
IL-27
MACROPHAGES, DENDRITIC
CELLS
REGULATES THE ACTIVITY OF B LYMPHOCYTE AND T LYMPHOCYTES
IL-28 - PLAYS A ROLE IN IMMUNE DEFENCE AGAINST VIRUSES
IL-29 - PLAYS A ROLE IN HOST DEFENCES AGAINST MICROBES
IL-30 - FORMS ONE CHAIN OF IL-27
IL-31 TH2 CELLS MAY PLAY A ROLE IN INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN
IL-32 - INDUCES MONOCYTES AND MACROPHAGES TO SECRETE TNF-Α, IL-8 ANDCXCL2
IL-33 - INDUCES HELPER T CELLS TO PRODUCE TYPE 2 CYTOKINE
IL-35 REGULATORY T CELLS SUPPRESSION OF T HELPER CELL ACTIVATION
IL-36 - REGULATES DC AND T CELL RESPONSES
100. MOA OF IL INHIBITORS
• IL inhibitor work by targeting cytokines that act as
chemical signals between WBC in response to an
invading infection .
• They suppress the activity of these cytokines
• Thus suppressing the immune system and reducing
inflammation
101. DISEASE DRUG
CATEGORY
DRUG BRAND
Arthritis NSAIDS, Steroids,
Immunosuppressant
Ibuprofen Motrin
IBD Anti-inflammatory,
Immune System
Suppressors,
Antibiotics
Sulfasalazine
(Azulfidine),
prednisone,
Azathioprine,
Methotrexate
Azulfidine,
Deltasone,
Aprin
Type-1 Diabetes Peptide hormone Insulin Apidra, Humalog,
Humulin
DISEASES AND DRUGS USED
102. PEPTIDE DERIVED AUTACOIDS
• THESE ARE DERIVED FROM PROTEINS
• MADE UP OF LONG CHAINS OF POLYPEPTIDES
• MOST IMPORTANT IN THIS CLASS: ANGIOTENSIN, BRADYKININ
103. Angiotensin
• Angiotensin is a hormone that helps regulate your B.P by
constricting (narrowing ) blood vessels and triggering water and salt
intake.
• 4 different forms of angiotensin : Angiotensin I – IV
104. BIOSYNTHESIS OF ANGIOTENSIN
• Renin released from kidney
• Convert angiotensinogen to
angiotesin1
• ACE converts angiotensin 1 to
angiotensin 2
• Angiotensin 2 exerts action by
bindinding to a specific receptor
• Angiotensin 2 degraded by
peptidases present in body
105. COMPONENTS OF RENIN-
ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM
RENIN
• Renin attacks alpha 2 globulin angiotensinogen.
• Renin is glycoprotein and stored in juxtaglomerular cells.
• Secretion of renin from kidney is prime determinant of this system.
Renin secretion is controlled by following factors-
• The macula densa pathway
• Intrarenal baroreceptor pathway
• Sympathetic nervous system
• Feedback control
• Drugs
106. COMPONENTS OF RENIN-
ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM
ANGIOTENSINOGEN
• Globular glycoprotein that acts as substrate of renin.
• Synthesized primarily in liver.
• Secretion may be enhanced by inflammation, insulin, estrogens, glucocorticoids, thyroid hormone
and angiotensin II.
ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME (ACE)
• Present on the luminal surface of vascular endothelial cells.
• Most important substrates are angiotensin I which it converts into angiotensin substrates (i.e.
angiotensin I which it converts into angiotensin II ).
107. ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTORS
• Angiotensin II exerts its actions through specific G protein coupled
receptors.
• Two sub types AT1and AT2.
• Most of known action of angiotensin II are mediated through AT1
receptors.
• Present on vascular smooth muscle, kidney, heart, adrenal gland.
• Most of the actions of angiotensin II such as vasoconstriction,
aldosterone release are mediated by AT1receptors.
• AT2receptors found in adrenal medulla, reproductive tissues, vascular
endothelium and parts of the brain
• AT2receptors activation causes vasodilation and may exert
antiproliferative effects (to suppress cell growth)
• AT2receptors may also be involved in foetal tissue development.
108. FUNCTIONS OF ANGIOTENSIN
• the primary results are higher blood volume, increased blood
pressure and increased sodium (salt) levels. Angiotensin II
binds to several receptors throughout your body, affecting
many different systems and functions, including:
•Stimulating the release of aldosterone from your adrenal
glands, which causes your body to retain sodium and lose
potassium through your urine.
•Increasing blood pressure by constricting (narrowing) blood
vessels.
•Triggering the sensation of thirst through your hypothalamus.
•Triggering the desire for salt (sodium) through your
hypothalamus.
•Stimulating the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or
109. FUNCTIONS OF ANGIOTENSIN
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• Angiotensin II promotes vasoconstriction
• Directly or indirectly by enhancing Adrenaline/NA release from adrenal
medulla/adrenergic nerve endings and by increasing central sympathetic
outflow
• Acts as a pressor agent much more potent then NA
• Angiotensin-II increases force of myocardial contraction by promoting
Ca2+ influx
SMOOTH MUSCLES
• Angiotensin-II contracts many visceral smooth muscles in vitro, but in
vivo effects are insignificant
110. FUNCTIONS OF ANGIOTENSIN
KIDNEY
• Angiotensin II promotes Na+/H+ exchange in proximal tube.
• Reduces renal blood flow and produces Intrarenal haemodynamic effects
which normally result in Na+ and waterretention.
CNS
• Angiotensin-II can gain access to certain periventricular areas of the
brain to induce drinking behaviour and ADH release.
PERIPHERAL SYMPATHETIC STRUCTURES
• Releases adrenaline from adrenal medulla, stimulates autonomic ganglia,
and increases output of NA from adrenergic nerve endings
111. What happens when angiotensin levels
are low
Lower-than-normal angiotensin II levels (angiotensin
deficiency) can cause the following issues:
•Low blood pressure (hypotension).
•Elevated potassium levels (hyperkalemia).
•Low sodium levels (hyponatremia).
•Fluid (water) loss through urine .
112. What happens when angiotensin levels
are high?
• Higher than normal angiotensin II levels cause excess fluid
(water) retention and high blood pressure (hypertension). This
often occurs in heart failure.
• Excess angiotensin also contributes to growth in the size of your
heart.
• To treat high angiotensin II levels, including angiotensin
converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (enalapril) and angiotensin
receptor blockers (losartan)
113. RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE
SYSTEM INHIBITORS
• THE RENIN ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN
MAINTAINENCE OF FLUID-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE AND BLOOD
PRESSURE
• ANY ABNORMALITY IN THE SYSTEM LEADS TO IMBALANCE IN FLUID
LEVELS OF THE BODY LEADING TORENOVASCULAR HYPERTENSION
• REGULATION OF THE RAAS SYSTEM, THEREFORE BECOMES
CLINICALLY IMPORTANT IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HYPERTENSION
AND SOME KIDNEY DISORDERS.
115. BRADYKININS
• Bradykinin formed by proteolytic cleavage of circulating proteins
termed kininogens.
• Synthesis and metabolism of Bradykinin
116. KININS
RECEPTORS, ACTIONS & THERAPY
• Activate β1, β2, β3 receptors
• Powerful Vasodilation→ decreased blood pressure via 2 receptor stimulation
• Increase in capillary permeability inducing edema.
• Produces inflammation & analgesia (2)
• Cardiac stimulation:
• Compensatory indirect & direct tachycardia& increase in cardiac output
• It produces coronary vasodilation
• Bradykinin has a cardiac anti-ischemic effect, inhibited by 2 antagonists
117. PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS
• Vasodilatation
• Increased vascular permeability
• Stimulation of pain nerve endings
• Stimulation of epithelial ion transport and fluid secretion in
airways and gastrointestinal tract
• Contraction of intestinal and uterine smooth muscle.
118. KININS
ACTIONS & THERAPY
• Kinins produce broncho-constriction & itching in respiratory
system
• Therapeutic Use:
• No current use of kinin analogues
• Increased Bradykinin is possibly involved in the therapeutic efficiency
& cough produced by ACEIs