So far, all of the exercises presented in this module have been statically determinate, i.e. there have been enough equations of equilibrium available to solve for the unknowns. This final section will be concerned with statically indeterminate structures, and two methods used to solve these problems will be presented.
So far, all of the exercises presented in this module have been statically determinate, i.e. there have been enough equations of equilibrium available to solve for the unknowns. This final section will be concerned with statically indeterminate structures, and two methods used to solve these problems will be presented.
Isoparametric bilinear quadrilateral element _ ppt presentationFilipe Giesteira
The theoretical formulation of an isoparametric element, from the Lagrange family. In addition, the MATLAB code of the FEM from the bilinear element with four nodes was also implemented.
Assignment developed in the scope of the finite element method course, lectured at FEUP (Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto).
A Presentation About The Introduction Of Finite Element Analysis (With Example Problem) ... (Download It To Get More Out Of It: Animations Don't Work In Preview) ... !
Isoparametric bilinear quadrilateral element _ ppt presentationFilipe Giesteira
The theoretical formulation of an isoparametric element, from the Lagrange family. In addition, the MATLAB code of the FEM from the bilinear element with four nodes was also implemented.
Assignment developed in the scope of the finite element method course, lectured at FEUP (Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto).
A Presentation About The Introduction Of Finite Element Analysis (With Example Problem) ... (Download It To Get More Out Of It: Animations Don't Work In Preview) ... !
This study deals with the active control of the dynamic response of a string with fixed ends and mass
loaded by a point mass. It has been controlled actively by means of a feed forward control method. A point mass of a
string is considered as a vibrating receiver which be forced to vibrate by a vibrating source being positioned on the
string. By analyzing the motion of a string, the equation of motion for a string was derived by using a method of
variation of parameters. To define the optimal conditions of a controller, the cost function, which denotes the dynamic
response at the point mass of a string was evaluated numerically. The possibility of reduction of a dynamic response
was found to depend on the location of a control force, the magnitude of a point mass and a forcing frequency
Stress Analysis of Chain Links in Different Operating Conditionsinventionjournals
The work covers the stress analysis in a 3D model of chain link analitically and numerically, and based on a real model, experimental examination was carried out. First, the cases when the links are vertical to each other and their tensile load were considered. The analysis was done in both work and experimental conditions and also the tensile load just before the chain broke. Second, the position in which the links are rotated for the calculated maximum angle. Experimental analysis of the high resistance chain (high hardness), insignia stress 14x50 G80 E5 was carried out on an universal testing mashine and the results are used for verification of numerical model.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
2. Learning Objectives
• To derive the stiffness matrix for a bar element.
• To illustrate how to solve a bar assemblage by the direct
stiffness method.
• To introduce guidelines for selecting displacement
functions.
• To describe the concept of transformation of vectors in
two different coordinate systems in the plane.
• To derive the stiffness matrix for a bar arbitrarily oriented
in the plane.
• To demonstrate how to compute stress for a bar in the
plane.
• To show how to solve a plane truss problem.
• To develop the transformation matrix in three-
dimensional space and show how to use it to derive the
stiffness matrix for a bar arbitrarily oriented in space.
• To demonstrate the solution of space trusses.
2
3. Having set forth the foundation on which the direct stiffness
method is based, we will now derive the stiffness matrix for
a linear-elastic bar (or truss) element using the general
steps outlined in Chapter 2.
We will include the introduction of both a local coordinate
system, chosen with the element in mind, and a global or
reference coordinate system, chosen to be convenient (for
numerical purposes) with respect to the overall structure.
We will also discuss the transformation of a vector from the
local coordinate system to the global coordinate system,
using the concept of transformation matrices to express
the stiffness matrix of an arbitrarily oriented bar element in
terms of the global system.
Development of Truss Equations
3
4. Development of Truss Equations
Next we will describe how to handle inclined, or skewed,
supports.
We will then extend the stiffness method to include space
trusses.
We will develop the transformation matrix in three-dimensional
space and analyze a space truss.
We will then use the principle of minimum potential energy
and apply it to the bar element equations.
Finally, we will apply Galerkin’s residual method to derive the
bar element equations.
4
13. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the derivation of the stiffness matrix for the linear-
elastic, constant cross-sectional area (prismatic) bar
element show below.
This application is directly applicable to the solution of pin-
connected truss problems.
13
14. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the derivation of the stiffness matrix for the linear-
elastic, constant cross-sectional area (prismatic) bar
element show below.
where T is the tensile force directed along the axis at
nodes 1 and 2, x is the local coordinate system directed
along the length of the bar.
14
15. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the derivation of the stiffness matrix for the linear-
elastic, constant cross-sectional area (prismatic) bar
element show below.
The bar element has a constant cross-section A, an initial
length L, and modulus of elasticity E.
The nodal degrees of freedom are the local axial
displacements u1 and u2 at the ends of the bar.
15
16. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The strain-displacement relationship is:
du
E
dx
From equilibrium of forces, assuming no distributed loads
acting on the bar, we get:
constant
x
A T
Combining the above equations gives:
constant
du
AE T
dx
Taking the derivative of the above equation with respect to the
local coordinate x gives:
0
d du
AE
dx dx
16
17. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The following assumptions are considered in deriving the bar
element stiffness matrix:
1. The bar cannot sustain shear force: 1 2 0
y y
f f
2. Any effect of transverse displacement is ignored.
3. Hooke’s law applies; stress is related to strain: x x
E
17
18. Step 1 - Select Element Type
We will consider the linear bar element shown below.
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The bar element has a constant cross-section A, an initial
length L, and modulus of elasticity E.
18
19. Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
1 2
u a a x
A linear displacement function u is assumed:
The number of coefficients in the displacement function, ai, is
equal to the total number of degrees of freedom associated
with the element.
Applying the boundary conditions and solving for the unknown
coefficients gives:
2 1
1
u u
u x u
L
1
2
1
u
x x
u
u
L L
19
20. Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Or in another form:
where N1 and N2 are the interpolation functions gives as:
1
1 2
2
u
u N N
u
1 2
1
x x
N N
L L
The linear displacement
function plotted over the
length of the bar element is
shown here.
u
20
21. Step 3 - Define the Strain/Displacement
and Stress/Strain Relationships
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The stress-displacement relationship is:
2 1
x
u u
du
dx L
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
We can now derive the element stiffness matrix as follows:
x
T A
Substituting the stress-displacement relationship into the
above equation gives:
2 1
u u
T AE
L
21
22. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The nodal force sign convention, defined in element figure, is:
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
therefore,
Writing the above equations in matrix form gives:
1 2
x x
f T f T
1 2 2 1
1 2
x x
u u u u
f AE f AE
L L
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1
x
x
f u
AE
f u
L
Notice that AE/L for a bar element is analogous to the spring
constant k for a spring element. 22
23. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The global stiffness matrix and the global force vector are
assembled using the nodal force equilibrium equations, and
force/deformation and compatibility equations.
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions
( ) ( )
1 1
n n
e e
e e
K F
K k F f
Where k and f are the element stiffness and force matrices
expressed in global coordinates.
23
24. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Solve the displacements by imposing the boundary conditions
and solving the following set of equations:
Step 6 - Solve for the Nodal Displacements
F Ku
Step 7 - Solve for the Element Forces
Once the displacements are found, the stress and strain in
each element may be calculated from:
2 1
x x x
u u
du
E
dx L
24
25. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the following three-bar system shown below. Assume
for elements 1 and 2: A = 1 in2 and E = 30 (106) psi and for
element 3: A = 2 in2 and E = 15 (106) psi.
Example 1 - Bar Problem
Determine: (a) the global stiffness matrix, (b) the displacement
of nodes 2 and 3, and (c) the reactions at nodes 1 and 4.
25
26. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
For elements 1 and 2:
Example 1 - Bar Problem
For element 3:
6
(1) (2) 6
1 30 10 1 1 1 1
10
30 1 1 1 1
lb lb
in in
k k
1 2 node numbers for element 1
6
(3) 6
2 15 10 1 1 1 1
10
30 1 1 1 1
lb lb
in in
k
3 4 node numbers for element 3
As before, the numbers above the matrices indicate the
displacements associated with the matrix.
2 3 node numbers for element 2
26
27. Assembling the global stiffness matrix by the direct stiffness
methods gives:
Relating global nodal forces related to global nodal
displacements gives:
6
1 1 0 0
1 2 1 0
10
0 1 2 1
0 0 1 1
K
1 1
2 2
6
3 3
4 4
1 1 0 0
1 2 1 0
10
0 1 2 1
0 0 1 1
x
x
x
x
F u
F u
F u
F u
E1 E 2 E 3
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 1 - Bar Problem
27
28.
1
2 2
6
3 3
4
1 1 0 0 0
1 2 1 0
10
0 1 2 1
0 0 1 1 0
x
x
x
x
F
F u
F u
F
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The boundary conditions are:
Example 1 - Bar Problem
1 4 0
u u
Applying the boundary conditions and the known forces
(F2x = 3,000 lb) gives:
2
6
3
3,000 2 1
10
0 1 2
u
u
28
29. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 1 - Bar Problem
Solving for u2 and u3 gives:
2
3
0.002
0.001
u in
u in
The global nodal forces are calculated as:
1
2 6
3
4
1 1 0 0 0 2,000
1 2 1 0 0.002 3,000
10
0 1 2 1 0.001 0
0 0 1 1 0 1,000
x
x
x
x
F
F
lb
F
F
29
30. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the following guidelines, as they relate to the one-
dimensional bar element, when selecting a displacement
function.
Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacements
1. Common approximation functions are usually
polynomials.
2. The approximation function should be continuous within
the bar element.
30
31. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacements
3. The approximating function should provide interelement
continuity for all degrees of freedom at each node for
discrete line elements, and along common boundary lines
and surfaces for two- and three-dimensional elements.
Consider the following guidelines, as they relate to the one-
dimensional bar element, when selecting a displacement
function.
31
32. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacements
For the bar element, we must ensure that nodes common
to two or more elements remain common to these
elements upon deformation and thus prevent overlaps or
voids between elements.
The linear function is then called a conforming (or
compatible) function for the bar element because it
ensures both the satisfaction of continuity between
adjacent elements and of continuity within the element.
Consider the following guidelines, as they relate to the one-
dimensional bar element, when selecting a displacement
function.
32
33. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacements
4. The approximation function should allow for rigid-body
displacement and for a state of constant strain within the
element.
Completeness of a function is necessary for
convergence to the exact answer, for instance, for
displacements and stresses.
Consider the following guidelines, as they relate to the one-
dimensional bar element, when selecting a displacement
function.
33
34. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
The interpolation function must allow for a rigid-body
displacement, that means the function must be capable of
yielding a constant value.
Consider the follow situation:
Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacements
Therefore:
1 1 1 2
u a a u u
1 1 2 2 1 2 1
u N u N u N N a
Since u = a1 then:
This means that: 1 2 1
N N
1 1 2 1
u a N N a
The displacement interpolation function must add to unity at
every point within the element so the it will yield a constant
value when a rigid-body displacement occurs. 34
35. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
In many problems it is convenient to introduce both local and
global (or reference) coordinates.
Local coordinates are always chosen to conveniently
represent the individual element.
Global coordinates are chosen to be convenient for the whole
structure.
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
35
36. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Given the nodal displacement of an element, represented by
the vector d in the figure below, we want to relate the
components of this vector in one coordinate system to
components in another.
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
36
37. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Let’s consider that d does not coincide with either the local or
global axes. In this case, we want to relate global
displacement components to local ones. In so doing, we will
develop a transformation matrix that will subsequently be
used to develop the global stiffness matrix for a bar element.
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
37
38. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
We define the angle to be positive when measured
counterclockwise from x to x’. We can express vector
displacement d in both global and local coordinates by:
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
1 1 1 1
u v u v
d i j i j
38
39. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the following diagram:
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
Using vector addition:
a b i
Using the law of cosines, we get: | | | | cos | | cos
a i a
Similarly: | | | | sin | | sin
b i b
39
40. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the following diagram:
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
The vector a is in the direction and b is in the direction,
therefore:
i
j
| | cos | | sin
a a i i b b j j
40
41. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the following diagram:
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
The vector i can be rewritten as: cos sin
i i j
The vector j can be rewritten as: sin cos
j i j
Therefore, the displacement vector is:
1 1 1 1 1 1
cos sin sin cos
u v u v u v
i j i j i j i j41
42. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Consider the following diagram:
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
Combining like coefficients of the local unit vectors gives:
1 1 1
cos sin
u v u
1 1 1
sin cos
u v v
cos
sin
C
S
1 1
1 1
u u
C S
v v
S C
42
43. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions
The matrix is called the transformation matrix:
The previous equation relates the global displacement d to
the d local displacements
C S
S C
The figure below shows u expressed in terms of the global
coordinates x and y.
u Cu Sv
43
44. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 2 - Bar Element Problem
Using the following expression we just derived, we get:
The global nodal displacement at node 2 is u2 = 0.1 in and
v2 = 0.2 in for the bar element shown below. Determine the
local displacement.
2 cos60 (0.1) sin60 (0.2)
o o
u
u Cu Sv
0.223 in
44
45. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
We will now use the transformation relationship developed
above to obtain the global stiffness matrix for a bar element.
45
46. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
We want to relate the global element forces f to the global
displacements d for a bar element with an arbitrary
orientation.
We known that for a bar element in local coordinates we have:
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1
x
x
f u
AE
f u
L
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
x
y
x
y
f u
f v
k
f u
f v
f k d
f = kd
46
47. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
Combining both expressions for the two local degrees-of-
freedom, in matrix form, we get:
Using the relationship between local and global components,
we can develop the global stiffness matrix.
We already know the transformation relationships:
1 1 1 2 2 2
cos sin cos sin
u u v u u v
1
1 1
2 2
2
0 0
0 0
u
u v
C S
u u
C S
v
*
d = T d
* 0 0
0 0
C S
C S
T
47
48. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
Substituting the global force expression into element force
equation gives:
A similar expression for the force transformation can be
developed.
1
1
1 *
2
2
2
0 0
0 0
x
y
x
x
x
y
f
f
f C S
f
f C S
f
f T f
f = k d
* *
T f k T d
*
T f k d
*
d = T d
Substituting the transformation between local and global
displacements gives:
48
49. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
The matrix T* is not a square matrix so we cannot invert it.
Let’s expand the relationship between local and global
displacement.
where T is:
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
u u
C S
v v
S C
u u
C S
v v
S C
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
C S
S C
C S
S C
T
d = Td
49
50. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
We can write a similar expression for the relationship between
local and global forces.
Therefore our original local coordinate force-displacement
expression
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
x x
y y
x x
y y
f f
C S
f f
S C
f f
C S
f f
S C
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1
x
x
f u
AE
f u
L
f = Tf
f = k d
50
51. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
May be expanded:
The global force-displacement equations are:
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
x
y
x
y
f u
f v
AE
f u
L
f v
f k d
Multiply both side by T -1 we get:
-1
f T k Td
where T-1 is the inverse of T. It can be shown that:
1 T
T T
Tf k Td
51
52. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
The global force-displacement equations become:
Where the global stiffness matrix k is:
Expanding the above transformation gives:
We can assemble the total stiffness matrix by using the above
element stiffness matrix and the direct stiffness method.
=
T
f T k Td
T
k T k T
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
k
( ) ( )
1 1
n n
e e
e e
K F
K k F f
F Kd
52
53. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Global Stiffness Matrix
Local forces can be computed as:
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
x
y
x
y
f u
f v
AE
f u
L
f v
1 1 1 2 2
1
2 1 1 2 2
2
0
0
x
y
x
y
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f AE
f L Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
1
1
2
2
1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
u
C S
v
S C
AE
u
C S
L
v
S C
53
54. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 3 - Bar Element Problem
Therefore:
For the bar element shown below, evaluate the global stiffness
matrix. Assume the cross-sectional area is 2 in2, the length
is 60 in, and the E is 30 x 106 psi.
3
cos30
2
o
C
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
k
1
sin30
2
o
S
54
55. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 3 - Bar Element Problem
Simplifying the global elemental stiffness matrix is:
The global elemental stiffness matrix is:
2 6
3 3
3 3
4 4 4 4
3 3
1 1
(2 ) 30 10 4 4 4 4
60 3 3
3 3
4 4 4 4
3 3
1 1
4 4 4 4
in psi
in
k
6
0.750 0.433 0.750 0.433
0.433 0.250 0.433 0.250
10
0.750 0.433 0.750 0.433
0.433 0.250 0.433 0.250
lb
in
k
55
56. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Computation of Stress for a Bar in the x-y Plane
For a bar element the local forces are related to the local
displacements by:
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1
x
x
f u
AE
f u
L
The force-displacement equation for is:
2x
f
1
2
2
1 1
x
u
AE
f
u
L
The stress in terms of global displacement is:
1
1
2
2
0 0
1 1
0 0
u
v
C S
E
u
L C S
v
1 1 2 2
E
Cu Sv Cu Sv
L
56
57. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 4 - Bar Element Problem
For the bar element shown below, determine the axial stress.
Assume the cross-sectional area is 4 x 10-4 m2, the length is
2 m, and the E is 210 GPa.
The global displacements are known as
u1 = 0.25 mm, v1 = 0, u2 = 0.5 mm,
and v2 = 0.75 mm.
1 1 2 2
E
Cu Sv Cu Sv
L
6
210 10 1 3 1 3
(0.25) (0) (0.5) (0.75)
2 2 4 2 4
KN
m
2
3
81.32 10 kN
81.32 MPa
57
58. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Solution of a Plane Truss
We will now illustrate the use of equations developed above
along with the direct stiffness method to solve the following
plane truss example problems.
A plane truss is a structure composed of bar elements all lying
in a common plane that are connected together by
frictionless pins.
The plane truss also must have loads acting only in the
common plane.
58
59. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
The plane truss shown below is composed of three bars
subjected to a downward force of 10 kips at node 1. Assume
the cross-sectional area A = 2 in2 and E is 30 x 106 psi for all
elements.
Determine the x and y displacement at node 1 and stresses in
each element.
59
60. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Element Node 1 Node 2 C S
1 1 2 90o 0 1
2 1 3 45o 0.707 0.707
3 1 4 0o 1 0
60
61. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
The global elemental stiffness matrix are:
0 1
C S
element 1:
1 0
C S
element 2:
element 3:
2 2
2 2
C S
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
k
1 1 2 2
2 6
(1)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
(2 )(30 10 )
0 0 0 0
120
0 1 0 1
lb
in
u v u v
in psi
in
k
1 1 3 3
2 6
(2)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
(2 )(30 10 )
1 1 1 1
240 2
1 1 1 1
lb
in
u v u v
in psi
in
k
1 1 4 4
2 6
(3)
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
(2 )(30 10 )
1 0 1 0
120
0 0 0 0
lb
in
u v u v
in psi
in
k
61
62. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
The total global stiffness matrix is:
5
1.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 1 0
0.354 1.354 0 1 0.354 0.354 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
0.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 10 lb
in
K
The total global force-displacement equations are:
5
0
1.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 1 0
10, 000
0.354 1.354 0 1 0.354 0.354 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
3
0.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
3
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4
5 10
F x
F y
F x
F y
F x
F y
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
u
v
element 1
element 2
element 3
62
63. 5
0
1.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 1 0
10, 000
0.354 1.354 0 1 0.354 0.354 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
3
0.354 0.354 0 0 0.354 0.354 0 0
3
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4
5 10
F x
F y
F x
F y
F x
F y
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
u
v
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Applying the boundary conditions for the truss, the above
equations reduce to:
63
64. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Applying the boundary conditions for the truss, the above
equations reduce to:
1
5
1
0 1.354 0.354
5 10
10,000 0.354 1.354
u
v
Solving the equations gives: 2
1
2
1
0.414 10
1.59 10
u in
v in
The stress in an element is: 1 1 2 2
E
Cu Sv Cu Sv
L
where is the local node number
i
64
65. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Element Node 1 Node 2 C S
1 1 2 90o 0 1
2 1 3 45o 0.707 0.707
3 1 4 0o 1 0
element 1
6
(1)
1
30 10
3,965
120
v psi
1 1 2 2
E
Cu Sv Cu Sv
L
element 2
6
(2)
1 1
30 10
(0.707) (0.707) 1,471
120
u v psi
65
66. element 3
6
(3)
1
30 10
1,035
120
u psi
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Element Node 1 Node 2 C S
1 1 2 90o 0 1
2 1 3 45o 0.707 0.707
3 1 4 0o 1 0
1 1 2 2
E
Cu Sv Cu Sv
L
66
67. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Let’s check equilibrium at node 1:
(2)
1 cos(45 )
x x
F f
(2)
1 sin(45 )
y x
F f
(3)
1x
f
(1)
1x
f
10,000lb
67
68. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 5 - Plane Truss Problem
Let’s check equilibrium at node 1:
2 2
(1,471 )(2 )(0.707) (1,035 )(2 ) 0
x
F psi in psi in
2 2
(3,965 )(2 ) (1,471 )(2 )(0.707) 10,000 0
y
F psi in psi in
68
69. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Develop the element stiffness matrices and system equations
for the plane truss below.
Assume the stiffness of each element is constant. Use the
numbering scheme indicated. Solve the equations for the
displacements and compute the member forces. All elements
have a constant value of AE/L
69
70. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Develop the element stiffness matrices and system equations
for the plane truss below.
Member Node 1 Node 2 Elemental
Stiffness
1 1 2 k 0
2 2 3 k 3/4
3 1 3 k /2
70
71. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Compute the elemental stiffness matrix for each element. The
general form of the matrix is:
Member Node 1 Node 2 Elemental
Stiffness
1 1 2 k 0
2 2 3 k 3/4
3 1 3 k /2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
k
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
71
72. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
For element 1:
Member Node 1 Node 2 Elemental
Stiffness
1 1 2 k 0
2 2 3 k 3/4
3 1 3 k /2
1 1 2 2
1
1
(1)
2
2
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
u v u v
u
v
k
u
v
k
72
73. 2 2 3 3
2
2
(2)
3
3
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
u v u v
u
v
k
u
v
k
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
For element 2:
Member Node 1 Node 2 Elemental
Stiffness
1 1 2 k 0
2 2 3 k 3/4
3 1 3 k /2 73
74. 1 1 3 3
1
1
(3)
3
3
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
u v u v
u
v
k
u
v
k
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
For element 3:
Member Node 1 Node 2 Elemental
Stiffness
1 1 2 k 0
2 2 3 k 3/4
3 1 3 k /2
74
75.
1 1 2 2 3 3
1
1
2
2
3
3
2 0 2 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 2
2 0 3 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 2 1 1 1 3
u v u v u v
u
v
u
k
v
u
v
K
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Assemble the global stiffness matrix by superimposing the
elemental global matrices.
element 1
element 2
element 3
75
76. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
The unconstrained (no boundary conditions satisfied)
equations are: 1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
2 0 2 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 2
2 0 3 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 2 1 1 1 3
x
y
x
y
F
u
F
v
P
u
k
P
v
F
u
F
v
The displacement at nodes 1 and 3 are zero in both directions.
Applying these conditions to the system equations gives:
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
2 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 2 0
2 0 3 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 2 1 1 1 3 0
x
y
x
y
F
F
P
u
k
P
v
F
F 76
77. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Applying the boundary conditions to the system equations
gives:
Solving this set of equations is fairly easy. The solution is:
2 1
2 2
3 1
2 1 1
u P
k
v P
1 2
2
P P
u
k
1 2
2
3
P P
v
k
77
78. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Member (element) 1:
Using the force-displacement relationship the force in each
member may be computed.
1 2
x
f k Cu
1 1 1 2 2
1
2 1 1 2 2
2
0
0
x
y
x
y
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
k
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
1 0
C S
2 0
y
f
1 0
y
f
1 2
P P
k
k
1 2
P P
2 2
x
f k Cu
1 2
P P
k
k
1 2
P P
78
79. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Member (element) 2:
Using the force-displacement relationship the force in each
member may be computed.
2 2 2
x
f k Cu Sv
2 2 2 3 3
2
3 2 2 3 3
3
0
0
x
y
x
y
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
k
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
1 1
2 2
C S
3 2 2
x
f k Cu Sv
1 2 1 2
3
1 1
2 2
P P P P
k
k k
1 2 1 2
3
1 1
2 2
P P P P
k
k k
2
2P
2
2P
79
80. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 6 - Plane Truss Problem
Member (element) 3:
Using the force-displacement relationship the force in each
member may be computed.
1 1
3 3
0 0
0 0
x y
x y
f f
f f
The solution to this simple problem can be readily checked by
using simple static equilibrium equations.
1 1 1 3 3
1
3 1 1 3 3
3
0
0
x
y
x
y
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
k
f Cu Sv Cu Sv
f
0 1
C S
80
81. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
Consider the two bar truss shown below.
Determine the displacement in the y direction of node 1 and
the axial force in each element.
Assume E = 210 GPa and A = 6 x 10-4 m2
81
82. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
The global elemental stiffness matrix for element 1 is:
(1) 3
cos 0.6
5
6 4
(1)
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48
0.48 0.64 0.48 0.64
210 10 (6 10 )
5 0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48
0.48 0.64 0.48 0.64
k
Simplifying the above expression gives:
1 1 2 2
(1)
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48
0.48 0.64 0.48 0.64
25,200
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48
0.48 0.64 0.48 0.64
u v u v
k
(1) 4
sin 0.8
5
82
83. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
The global elemental stiffness matrix for element 2 is:
Simplifying the above expression gives:
(2)
cos 0
6 4
(2)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
(210 10 )(6 10 )
4 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
k
1 1 3 3
(2)
0 0 0 0
0 1.25 0 1.25
25,200
0 0 0 0
0 1.25 0 1.25
u v u v
k
(2)
sin 1
83
84. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
The total global equations are:
The displacement boundary conditions are:
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
3 3
3 3
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48 0 0
0.48 1.89 0.48 0.64 0 1.25
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48 0 0
25,200
0.48 0.64 0.48 0.64 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1.25 0 0 0 1.25
x
y
x
y
x
y
F u
F v
F u
F v
F u
F v
1 2 2 3 3 0
u u v u v
element 1
element 2
84
85.
1 1
1 1
2
2
3
3
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48 0 0
0.48 1.89 0.48 0.64 0 1.25
0.36 0.48 0.36 0.48 0 0 0
25,200
0.48 0.64 0.48 0.64 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1.25 0 0 0 1.25 0
x
y
x
y
x
y
F u
F v
F
F
F
F
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
The total global equations are:
By applying the boundary conditions the force-displacement
equations reduce to:
1
25,200(0.48 1.89 )
P v
1
2
2
3
3
x
x
y
x
y
F
P
F
F
F
F
85
86. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
Solving the equation gives:
By substituting P = 1,000 kN and = -0.05 m in the above
equation gives:
The local element forces for element 1 are:
5
1 (2.1 10 ) 0.25
v P
1 0.0337
v m
1
1 1
2 2
2
0.05
0.0337
1 1 0.6 0.8 0 0
25,200
1 1 0 0 0.6 0.8
x
x
u
f v
f u
v
The element forces are: 1 2
76.6 76.7
x x
f kN f kN
Tension 86
87. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 7 - Plane Truss Problem
The local element forces for element 2 are:
The element forces are:
1
1 1
3 3
3
0.05
0.0337
1 1 0 1 0 0
31,500
1 1 0 0 0 1
x
x
u
f v
f u
v
1 3
1,061 1,061
x x
f kN f kN
Compression
87
88. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
Let’s derive the transformation matrix for the stiffness matrix for
a bar element in three-dimensional space as shown below:
88
89. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
The coordinates at node 1 are x1, y1, and z1, and the coor-
dinates of node 2 are x2, y2, and z2. Also, let x, y, and z be
the angles measured from the global x, y, and z axes,
respectively, to the local axis.
89
90. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
The three-dimensional vector representing the bar element is
gives as:
u v w u v w
d i j k i j k
90
91. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
Taking the dot product of the above equation with gives:
i
( ) ( ) ( )
u v w u
i i j i k i
By the definition of the dot product we get:
2 1
x
x x
C
L
i i
where 2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
L x x y y z z
cos
x x
C
where Cx, Cy, and Cz are projections of on to i, j, and k,
respectively.
i
2 1
y
y y
C
L
j i 2 1
z
z z
C
L
k i
cos
y y
C
cos
z z
C
91
92. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
Therefore: x y z
u C u C v C w
The transformation between local and global displacements is:
*
d T d
1
1
1 1
2 2
2
2
0
0 0
0 0 0
x y z
y
x z
u
v
u w
C C C
C
u C C u
v
w
0
0 0
0 0 0
x y z
y
x z
C C C
C
C C
*
T
92
93. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
The transformation from the local to the global stiffness matrix
is:
T
k T k T
0
0
0
0 0 0
1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
0
0
x
y
z x y z
y
x x z
y
z
C
C
C C C C
AE
C
C C C
L
C
C
k
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
x y x y
x z x z
x x
y y
y z y z
x y x y
y z y z
z z
x z x z
x y x y
x z x z
x x
y y
y z y z
x y x y
y z y z
z z
x z x z
C C C C
C C C C
C C
C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C
C C C C
AE
C C C C
C C C C
L C C
C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C
C C C C
k
93
94. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for
a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
The global stiffness matrix can be written in a more convenient
form as:
AE
L
k
2
2
2
x x y x z
x y y y z
x z y z z
C C C C C
C C C C C
C C C C C
94
95. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Inclined, or Skewed Supports
If a support is inclined, or skewed, at some angle for the
global x axis, as shown below, the boundary conditions on
the displacements are not in the global x-y directions but in
the x’-y’ directions.
95
96. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Inclined, or Skewed, Supports
We must transform the local boundary condition of v’3 = 0
(in local coordinates) into the global x-y system.
96
97. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Inclined, or Skewed, Supports
Therefore, the relationship between of the components of the
displacement in the local and the global coordinate systems
at node 3 is:
3 3
3 3
' cos sin
' sin cos
u u
v v
We can rewrite the above expression as:
3 3 3
' [ ]
d t d
We can apply this sort of transformation to the entire
displacement vector as:
1 1
' [ ] [ ] '
T
d T d or d T d
3
cos sin
sin cos
t
97
98. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Inclined, or Skewed, Supports
Where the matrix [T1]T is:
Both the identity matrix [I] and the matrix [t3] are 2 x 2 matrices.
The force vector can be transformed by using the same
transformation.
T
1
3
[ ] [0] [0]
[ ] [0] [ ] [0]
[0] [0] [ ]
I
T I
t
1
' [ ]
f T f
In global coordinates, the force-displacement equations are:
[ ]
f K d
98
99. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Inclined, or Skewed, Supports
Applying the skewed support transformation to both sides of
the equation gives:
By using the relationship between the local and the global
displacements, the force-displacement equations become:
Therefore the global equations become:
1 1
[ ] [ ][ ]
T f T K d
1 1
' [ ][ ][ ] '
T
f T K T d
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
3 3
3 3
[ ][ ][ ]
' '
' '
x
y
x T
y
x
y
F u
F v
F u
T K T
F v
F u
F v
[ ]
f K d
1
[ ] '
T
d T d
99
100. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
Determine the stiffness matrix
for each element.
Consider the plane truss shown below. Assume E = 210 GPa,
A = 6 x 10-4 m2 for element 1 and 2, and A = (6 x 10-4)m2
for element 3.
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
k
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
100
101. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
The global elemental stiffness matrix for element 1 is:
(1)
cos 0
1 1 2 2
6 2 4 2
(1)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
(210 10 / )(6 10 )
0 0 0 0
1
0 1 0 1
u v u v
kN m m
m
k
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
k
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
(1)
sin 1
101
102. (2)
cos 1
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
The global elemental stiffness matrix for element 2 is:
2 2 3 3
6 2 4 2
(2)
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
(210 10 / )(6 10 )
1 0 1 0
1
0 0 0 0
u v u v
kN m m
m
k
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
k
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
(2)
sin 0
102
103. (3) 2
cos
2
Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
The global elemental stiffness matrix for element 3 is:
1 1 3 3
6 2 4 2
(3)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
(210 10 / )(6 2 10 )
1 1 1 1
2 2
1 1 1 1
u v u v
kN m m
m
k
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
AE
k
L CS CS
C C
S S
CS CS
(3) 2
sin
2
103
104. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
Using the direct stiffness method, the global stiffness matrix is:
5
.
0
5
.
0
0
0
5
.
0
5
.
0
5
.
0
5
.
1
0
1
5
.
0
5
.
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
5
.
0
5
.
0
1
0
5
.
1
5
.
0
5
.
0
5
.
0
0
0
5
.
0
5
.
0
10
260
,
1 5
m
N
K
We must transform the global displacements into local
coordinates. Therefore the transformation [T1] is:
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1
3
[ ] [0] [0]
[ ] [0] [ ] [0]
[0] [0] [ ]
I
T I
t
104
106. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
The next step in the matrix transformation to find the product of
[T1][K][T1]T.
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
T 5
1 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5
0 1 0 0 0 0
0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.414 0.707 0 0 0 0
0 0 0.707 0 0.707 0
0 0 0 0
1,260 10
1 1
N
T K
m
T
T
0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707 0
0.5 1.5 0 1 0.707 0
0 0 1 0 0.707 0.707
0 1 0 1 0 0
0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5
0 0 0.707 0 0.5 0.5
5
1
,260 10
1 1
T K N
T
m
T
1
T
1
T K
106
107. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
The displacement boundary conditions are: 1 1 2 3
' 0
u v v v
5
1
1
2
2
3
3
1
1
2
2
3
3
1
,260 10
0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707 0
0.5 1.5 0 1 0.707 0
0 0 1 0 0.707 0.707
0 1 0 1 0 0
0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5
0 0 0.707 0 0.5 0.5
'
'
'
'
x
y
x
y
x
y
N
m
F
F
F
F
F
F
u
v
u
v
u
v
107
108. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
By applying the boundary conditions the global force-
displacement equations are:
2
5
3
1 0.707
1,260 10
'
0.707 1.5
u
N
m u
Solving the equation gives: 2 11.91
u mm
2
3
1,000
' 0
x
x
F kN
F
3
' 5.61
u mm
108
109. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 9 – Space Truss Problem
Therefore:
The global nodal forces are calculated as:
1
1
2 2
2
3
3
0.5 0.5 0 0 0.707 0 0
0.5 1.5 0 1 0.707 0 0
0 0 1 0 0.707 0.707 11.91
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0.707 0.707 0.707 0 1.5 0.5 5.61
0 0 0.707 0 0.5 0.5 0
1,260 10
'
'
x
y
x N
mm
y
x
y
F
F
F
F
F
F
1 1
500 500
x y
F kN F kN
2 3
0 ' 707
y y
F F kN
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2
3 3
3 3
[ ][ ][ ]
' '
' '
x
y
x T
y
x
y
F u
F v
F u
T K T
F v
F u
F v
109
110. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
The differential internal work (strain energy) dU in a one-
dimensional bar element is:
Let’s derive the equations for a bar element using the principle
of minimum potential energy.
The total potential energy, p, is defined as the sum of the
internal strain energy U and the potential energy of the
external forces :
p U
( )( )( )
x x
dU y z x d
110
111. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
Summing the differential energy over the whole bar gives:
If we let the volume of the element approach zero, then:
x x
dU d dV
0
x
x x
V
U d dV
For a linear-elastic material (Hooke’s law) as shown below:
x x
E
0
x
x x
V
E d dV
2
1
2
x
V
E dV
1
2
x x
V
U dV
111
112. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
The potential energy of the external forces is:
The internal strain energy statement becomes
1
2
x x
V
U dV
s
V S
X u dV T u dS f u
M
b x ix i
i 1
where Xb is the body force (force per unit volume), Tx is the
traction (force per unit area), and fix is the nodal concentrated
force. All of these forces are considered to act in the local x
direction.
112
113. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
1. Formulate an expression for the total potential energy.
2. Assume a displacement pattern.
3. Obtain a set of simultaneous equations minimizing the
total potential energy with respect to the displacement
parameters.
Apply the following steps when using the principle of minimum
potential energy to derive the finite element equations.
113
114. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
We can approximate the axial displacement as:
Consider the following bar element, as shown below:
2 2
0
L
p x x 1x 1 x
s
V S
A
dx f u f u
2
X u dV T u dS
b x
1
1 2
2
u
u N N
u
1 1
x
N
L
2
x
N
L
114
115. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
where N1 and N2 are the interpolation functions gives as:
Using the stress-strain relationships, the axial strain is:
x
du
dx
1
2
1 1
x
u
u
L L
1 1
B
L L
The axial stress-strain relationship is:
[ ]
x x
D
[ ]{ }
x B d
1
1 2
2
u
dN dN
u
dx dx
115
116. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
The total potential energy expressed in matrix form is:
For the one-dimensional stress-strain relationship [D] = [E]
where E is the modulus of elasticity.
Therefore, stress can be related to nodal displacements as:
where {P} represented the concentrated nodal loads.
[ ][ ]
x D B d
0
L
T T T T
p x x
V S
A
dx d P u X dV u T dS
2
b x
116
117. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
If we substitute the relationship between and into the
energy equations we get:
û d̂
0
L
T T
T T
p
T T
T T
s
V S
A
d B D B d dx d P
2
d N X dV d N T dS
b x
In the above expression for potential energy p is a function of
the d, that is: p = p( ).
1,
u 2
u
However, [B] and [D] and the nodal displacements u are not a
function of x.
x
x
117
118. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
where
Integration the energy expression with respect to x gives:
[ ] [ ] [ ]
2
T T
T T
p
AL
d B D B d d f
[ ] [ ]
V S
f P N X dV N X dS
T T
b b
We can define the surface tractions and body-force matrices
as:
[ ] x
S
f N T dS
T
s
[ ]
V
f N X dV
T
b b
118
119. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
Minimization of p with respect to each nodal displacement
requires that:
For convenience, let’s define the following
1 2
0 0
p p
u u
*
[ ] [ ] [ ]
T T T
U d B D B d
1
*
1 2
2
1
1 1
[ ]
1
u
L
U u u E
u
L L
L
119
120. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
Simplifying the above expression gives:
The loading on a bar element is given as:
* 2 2
1 1 2 2
2
2
E
U u u u u
L
1 1 2 2
T
x x
d f u f u f
Therefore, the minimum potential energy is:
1 2 1
1
2 2 0
2
p
x
AE
u u f
u L
1 2 2
2
2 2 0
2
p
x
AE
u u f
u L
120
121. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations
The above equations can be written in matrix form as:
The stiffness matrix for a bar element is:
This form of the stiffness matrix obtained from the principle of
minimum potential energy is identical to the stiffness matrix
derived from the equilibrium equations.
1 1
2 2
1 1
0
1 1
p x
x
u f
AE
u f
d L
1 1
1 1
AE
k
L
121
122. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 10 - Bar Problem
Consider the bar shown below:
The energy equivalent nodal forces due to the distributed load
are:
0 [ ] x
S
f N T dS
T
0
0
L
x
1
f L
f Cx dx
f x
L
1x
2x
122
123. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 10 - Bar Problem
The total load is the area under the distributed load curve, or:
The equivalent nodal forces for a linearly varying load are:
f
f
1x
2x
2
1
( )( )
2 2
CL
F L CL
1
1
of the total load
3 3
x
F
f 2
2 2
of the total load
3 3
x
F
f
0
L
x
1
L
Cx dx
x
L
0
0
L
2 3
L
3
Cx Cx
2 3L
Cx
3L
2
2
CL
6
CL
3
123
124. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
Consider the axially loaded bar shown below. Determine the
axial displacement and axial stress. Let E = 30 x 106 psi,
A = 2 in2, and L = 60 in. Use (a) one and (b) two elements in
the finite element solutions.
124
125. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The one-element solution:
The distributed load can be converted into equivalent nodal
forces using:
0 [ ] x
S
F N T dS
T
0
1x
2x
F
F
F
0
10
L
x
1
L x dx
x
L
125
126. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The one-element solution:
0
10
L
1x
2x
x
1
F L x dx
F x
L
6,000
12,000
1x
2x
F lb
F lb
2 2
2
10 10
- +
2 3
10
-
3
L L
L
2
2
10
-
6
10
-
3
L
L
126
127. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The one-element solution:
The element equations are:
(1) 6 1 1
10
1 1
k
1
6
2
6,000
1 1
10
12,000
1 1 0 x
u
R
1 0.006
u in
The second equation gives:
6
1 2
10 ( ) 12,000
x
u R
2 18,000
x
R lb
127
128. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The one-element solution:
The axial stress-strain relationship is: { } [ ]{ }
x x
D
{ } [ ]
x E B d
1
2
1 1 u
E
u
L L
6 0 0.006
30 10
60
2 1
u u
E
L
3,000 ( )
psi T
128
129. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
The distributed load can be converted into equivalent nodal
forces.
For element 1, the total force of the triangular-shaped
distributed load is:
1
(30 .)(300 ) 4,500
2
lb
in
in lb
129
130. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
Based on equations developed for the equivalent nodal force of
a triangular distributed load, develop in the one-element
problem, the nodal forces are:
(1)
1
(1)
2
1
(4,500)
3
2
(4,500)
3
x
x
f
f
1,500
3,000
lb
lb
130
131. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
For element 2, the applied force is in two parts: a triangular-
shaped distributed load and a uniform load. The uniform load
is:
(30 )(300 / ) 9,000
in lb in lb
(2)
2
(2)
3
1 1
(9,000) (4,500)
2 3
1 2
(9,000) (4,500)
2 3
x
x
f
f
The nodal forces for element 2 are:
6,000
7,500
lb
lb
131
132. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
The final nodal force vector is:
The element stiffness matrices are:
(1)
1 1
(1) (2)
2 2 2
(2)
3 3
x x
x x x
x x
F f
F f f
F f
(1) (2) 1 1
2
1 1
AE
L
k k
1 2
2 3
3
1,500
9,000
7,500
x
R
132
133. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
The assembled global stiffness matrix is:
The assembled global force-displacement equations are:
6
1 1 0
2 10 1 2 1
0 1 1
K
1
6
2
3
1 1 0 1,500
2 10 1 2 1 9,000
0 1 1 0 7,500
x
u
u
R
element 1
element 2
133
134. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
After the eliminating the row and column associated with u3x,
we get:
Solving the equation gives:
1
6
2
1 1 1,500
2 10
1 2 9,000
u
u
1
2
0.006
0.00525
u in
u in
6
2 3
2 10 7,500
x
u R
3 18,000
x
R
Solving the last equation gives:
134
135. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
The axial stress-strain relationship is:
1
(1)
2
1 1 x
x
x
d
E
d
L L
0.006
1 1
30 30 0.00525
E
750 ( )
psi T
135
136. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 11 - Bar Problem
The two-element solution:
The axial stress-strain relationship is:
2
(2)
3
1 1 x
x
x
d
E
d
L L
0.00525
1 1
30 30 0
E
5,250 ( )
psi T
136
137. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution
In order to be able to judge the accuracy of our finite element
models, we will develop an exact solution for the bar element
problem.
The exact solution for the displacement may be obtained by:
where the force P is shown on the following free-body diagram.
0
1
( )
L
u P x dx
AE
1
( ) (10 )
2
P x x x
2
5x
137
138. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution
Therefore:
Applying the boundary conditions:
0
1
( )
L
u P x dx
AE
2
1
5
x
o
u x dx
AE
3
1
5
( ) 0
3
x
u L C
AE
The exact solution for axial displacement is:
3 3
5
( )
3
u L x L
AE
( )
( )
P x
x
A
3
1
5
3
x
C
AE
3
1
5
3
L
C
AE
2
5x
A
138
139. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution
A plot of the exact solution for displacement as compared to
several different finite element solutions is shown below.
One element
Two elements
139
140. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution
A plot of the exact solution for axial stress as compared to
several different finite element solutions is shown below.
One element
Two elements
140
141. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution
A plot of the exact solution for axial stress at the fixed end
(x = L) as compared to several different finite element
solutions is shown below.
141
142. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Galerkin’s Residual Method and Its Application
to a One-Dimensional Bar
There are a number of weighted residual methods.
However, the Galerkin’s method is more well-known and will be
the only weighted residual method discussed in this course.
In weighted residual methods, a trial or approximate function is
chosen to approximate the independent variable (in our
case, displacement) in a problem defined by a differential
equation.
The trial function will not, in general, satisfy the governing
differential equation.
Therefore, the substitution of the trial function in the differential
equation will create a residual over the entire domain of the
problem.
142
143. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Galerkin’s Residual Method and Its Application
to a One-Dimensional Bar
Therefore, the substitution of the trial function in the differential
equation will create a residual over the entire domain of the
problem.
minimum
V
RdV
In the residual methods, we require that a weighted value of
the residual be a minimum over the entire domain of the
problem.
The weighting function W allows the weighted integral of the
residuals to go to zero.
0
V
RW dV
143
144. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Galerkin’s Residual Method and Its Application
to a One-Dimensional Bar
Using Galerkin’s weighted residual method, we require the
weighting functions to be the interpolation functions Ni.
Therefore:
0 1, 2, ,
i
V
RN dV i n
144
145. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
Let’s derive the bar element formulation using Galerkin’s
method. The governing differential equation is:
Applying Galerkin’s method we get:
0
d du
AE
dx dx
0
0 1, 2, ,
L
i
d du
AE N dx i n
dx dx
We now apply integration by parts using the following general
formula:
rds rs sdr
145
146. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
If we assume the following:
then integration by parts gives:
i
r N
d du
ds AE dx
dx dx
0 0
0
L L
i
i
dN
du du
N AE AE dx
dx dx dx
0
L
i
d du
AE N dx
dx dx
rds rs sdr
i
dN
dr dx
dx
du
s AE
dx
146
147. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
Recall that:
1 2
1 2
dN dN
du
u u
dx dx dx
1
2
1 1 u
du
u
dx L L
Our original weighted residual expression, with the
approximation for u becomes:
1
2
0
1 1
L
i
u
dN
AE dx
u
dx L L
0
L
i
du
N AE
dx
147
148. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
Substituting N1 for the weighting function Ni gives:
1
1
2
0
1 1
L
u
dN
AE dx
u
dx L L
1
2
0
1 1 1
L
u
AE dx
u
L L L
1 2 1x
AE
u u f
L
1
0
L
du
N AE
dx 0
x
du
AE
dx
0
x x
AE
1x
f
0
x x
A
1 2
2
AEL
u u
L
1
0
L
du
N AE
dx
148
149. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
Substituting N2 for the weighting function Ni gives:
1
2
2
0
1 1
L
u
dN
AE dx
u
dx L L
1
2
0
1 1 1
L
u
AE dx
u
L L L
1 2 2x
AE
u u f
L
2
0
L
du
N AE
dx x L
du
AE
dx
x x L
AE
2x
f
x x L
A
1 2
2
AEL
u u
L
2
0
L
du
N AE
dx
149
150. Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element
Example 12 - Bar Element Formulation
Writing the last two equations in matrix form gives:
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1
x
x
u f
AE
u f
L
This element formulation is identical to that developed from
equilibrium and the minimum potential energy approach.
150