1. The document discusses various approaches, methods, and techniques for language teaching. An approach refers to assumptions about language learning, a method is the practical application of an approach through procedures and techniques, and a technique is what occurs in the classroom. 2. Key theories of language discussed are the structural, functional, and interactional views. Methods explained include grammar translation, direct method, reading approach, audiolingual method, community language learning, and total physical response. Later developments presented are communicative language teaching and the presentation-practice-production model. 3. Communicative language teaching emphasizes using language communicatively and developing students' communicative competence through activities that involve information sharing, problem solving and role plays.

1. Methods and Approaches

2. Approach, Method, Technique
 An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of
language teaching and learning.
 A method is a method is the practical realization of an approach. Methods include
various procedures and techniques as part of their standard fare.
 A technique is implementional – that which actually takes place in a classroom.

3. Theory of Language
Structural view
• Language is a system of structurally related elements for
the coding meaning.
• Phonological units (phonemes), grammatical units
(clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations
(adding, sifting, joining, or transforming elements), and
lexical items (function words and structure words).
• The Audiolingual Method, Total Physical Response, the
Silent Way
Richards & Rodgers 1986: 21

4. Theory of Language
Functional view
• Language is a vehicle for the expression of
functional meaning.
• Emphasizing semantic and communicative
dimension
• Language teaching content: meaning and function
• Notional/functional syllabus, ESP movement
Richards & Rodgers 1986: 21

5. Theory of Language
Interactional view
• Language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal
relations and for the performance of social transactions
between individuals.
• Focusing on the patterns of moves, acts, negotiation, and
interaction.
• Task-Based Language Teaching, Task-Based
Conversation, Whole Language, Content Based
Instruction
Richards & Rodgers 1986: 22

6. Grammar Translation Method
 In this method, classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active
use of the target language.
 Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists.
 Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided.
 Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction
focuses on the form and inflection (change) of words.
 Little attention is paid to the content of texts.
 Drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language
into the mother tongue, and vice versa.
 Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

7. Direct Method
 This method was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation
method in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
 Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target
language.
 Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures.
 The mother tongue is NEVER used. There is no translation.
 The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based
on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative.

8.  Questions are answered in the target language.
 Grammar is taught inductively (general)--rules are generalized from the practice and experience
with the target language.
 Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated (list its various forms) much later after some oral
mastery of the target language.
 Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure.
 Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.
 The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively.
 Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

9. Reading Approach
 The approach is mostly for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the
one usable skill in a foreign language.
 The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current
and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.
 Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught.
 Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target
language.
 From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2.
 The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty.
 Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is
considered more important that grammatical skill.
 Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to
comprehension of the written text.

10. Audiolingual Method
 This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology.
 It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a
reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
 New material is presented in the form of a dialogue.
 Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method
fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning.
 Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught
using repetitive drills.
 Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively.

11.  Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.
 Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
 Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2.
 There is abundant (more than enough) use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids.
 There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course.
 Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation.
 Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the
students.
 Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors.
 There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and
meaning.

12. 1. Students first hear a model dialog (either read by the teacher or on tape) containing key structures
that are the focus of the lesson. They repeat each line of the dialog, individually and in chorus. The
teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation, and fluency. Correction of mistakes of
pronunciation or grammar is direct and immediate. The dialog is memorized gradually, line by line.
A line may be broken down into several phrases if necessary. The dialog is read aloud in chorus,
one half saying one speaker’s part and the other half responding. The students do not consult their
book throughout this phase.
2. The dialog is adapted to the students’ interest or situation, through changing certain key words or
phrases. This is acted out by the students.
3. Certain key structures from the dialog are selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of
different kinds. These are first practiced in chorus and then individually. Some grammatical
explanation may be offered at this point, but this is kept to an absolute minimum.
4. The students may refer to their textbook, and follow-up reading, writing, or vocabulary activities
based on the dialog may be introduced.
5. Follow-up activities may take place in the language laboratory, where further dialog and drill work
is carried out.
(Richards and Rodgers 2001, 64–65)

13. Community language learning (CLL)
 This approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar
anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters
in the learning of foreign languages.
 The learner is not thought of as a student but as a client.
 The instructors are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills
adapted to their roles as language counselors.
 The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and
conflict.
 The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the
client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically.
 Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly
independent language adequacy.
 This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm,
understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for
the client.

14. The process involves five stages of adaptation:
STAGE 1
The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each
group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved
in the interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm,
accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the
counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's
maximum security stage.
STAGE 2
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps
are signs of positive confidence and hope.

15. STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has
now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and
proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given
only when a group member desires it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's
understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex
expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. 1. Same as stage 4.
2. 2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant
constructions.
3. 3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.

16. Suggestopedia
 This method developed out of believe that human brain could process great
quantities of material given the right conditions of learning like relaxation.
 music was central to this method.
 Soft music led to increase in alpha brain wave and a decrease in blood pressure
and pulse rate resulting in high intake of large quantities of materials.
 Learners were encouraged to be as “childlike” as possible.
 Apart from soft, comfortable seats in a relaxed setting, everything else remained
the same.

17. The natural approach
 This method emphasized development of basic personal communication skills
 Delay production until speech emerge i.e learners don’t say anything until they are
ready to do so
 Learners should be as relaxed a possible
 Advocate use of TPR at beginning level
 Comprehensible input is essential for acquisition to take place.

18. Total Physical Response (TPR)
Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills
through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system.
This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a
rapid rate. The basic tenets are:
1. Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking.
2. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information.
3. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period
and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the he/she feels comfortable
and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.

19. 1. Procedure:
2. The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
3. The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
4. The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
5. The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
6. The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other
students.
7. The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.

20. Presentation, Practice, and Production
 A variation on Audio-lingualism in British-based teaching and elsewhere is the
procedure most often referred to as PPP, which stands for Presentation, Practice,
and Production.
 In this procedure the teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the
language to be taught. The students now practice the language using accurate
reproduction techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition, and cue-
response drills.

21.  Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a
conversation or short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks
students’ comprehension of it.
 Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled context,
through drills or substitution exercises.
 Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts,
often using their own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the
new pattern.

22. Communicative language Teaching
 The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) puts
the focus on communicative interaction in class, not on a correct but mind- and
meaningless reproduction of the linguistic forms prescribed for a specific lesson.

23. Communicative Language Teaching
 The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is
on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of
communicative situations in which they are used.
 There is negotiation of meaning.
 A variety of language skills are involved
 Material is presented in context
 It pays attention to registers and styles in terms of situation and participants.
 Fluency and accuracy (different competencies)
 Form and functions
 Development of autonomous learners

24. DEVELOPING COMMUNICATIVE CEMPETENCE
1. As detailed a consideration as possible of the purposes for which the learner wishes to acquire the target
language; for example, using English for business purposes, in the hotel industry, or for travel10
Communicative Language Teaching Today
2. Some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the target language; for example, in an office, on an
airplane, or in a store
3. The socially defined role the learners will assume in the target language, as well as the role of their
interlocutors; for example, as a traveler, as a salesperson talking to clients, or as a student in a school
4. The communicative events in which the learners will participate: everyday situations, vocational or professional
situations, academic situations, and so on; for example, making telephone calls, engaging in casual
conversation, or taking part in a meeting
5. The language functions involved in those events, or what the learner will be able to do with or through the
language; for example, making introductions, giving explanations, or describing plans
6. The notions or concepts involved, or what the learner will need to be able to talk about; for example, leisure,
finance, history, religion
7. The skills involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills; for example,
storytelling, giving an effective business presentation
8. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, such as American, Australian, or British
English, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need to reach
9. The grammatical content that will be needed
10. The lexical content, or vocabulary, that will be needed
 (van Ek and Alexander 1980)

25. Classroom Activities
 They seek to develop students’ communicative competence through linking
grammatical development to the ability to communicate. Hence, grammar is not
taught in isolation but often arises out of a communicative task, thus creating a
need for specific items of grammar. Students might carry out a task and then
reflect on some of the linguistic characteristics of their performance.
 They create the need for communication, interaction, and negotiation of meaning
through the use of activities such as problem solving, information sharing, and role
play.
 They provide opportunities for both inductive as well as deductive learning of
grammar.
 They make use of content that connects to students’ lives and interests.
 They allow students to personalize learning by applying what they have learned to
their own lives.
 Classroom materials typically make use of authentic texts to create interest and to
provide valid models of language.

26. Non-communicative activities Communicative activities
No communicative desire
No communicative purpose
Form not content
One language item only
Teacher intervention
Materials control
A desire to communicate
A communicative purpose
Content not form
Variety of language
No teacher intervention
No materials control