The document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It defines research as systematic inquiry aimed at understanding human behavior and mental processes. Various research methods are described, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs. Key aspects of the research process like developing hypotheses, collecting both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring reliability and validity, and addressing ethical considerations are summarized.

1. An Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology James Neill (2010) Centre for Applied Psychology University of Canberra

2. Outline Introduction

3. What is research?

4. Quick Fun Survey

5. Research process

6. Research methods

7. Bias in research

8. Ethical issues

9. Reading Research methods in psychology (Gerrig et al. 2008, Ch. 2)

10. disciplined inquiry What is research?

11. What is research?

12. What is research? Research is formalised curiosity . It is poking and prying with a purpose. - Zora Neale Hurston

13. Research is a a systematic attempt to understand the world .

14. Psychological research is a systematic attempt to understand human experiences of themselves and the world . What is psychological research?

15. Systematic development & testing of theory about human behaviour and mental events

16. Disciplined enquiry into human thinking, feeling, and behaviour . What is psychological research?

17. Research is a language Learn key terms / concepts

18. UG study, especially 1st year, is about acquiring the language skills to access and make sense of recorded research knowledge

19. Psychological research ...holds out the promise of discovering the architecture of our psyche and understanding our behaviour in the world around us.

20. Psychological research is a recent phenomenon Western, scientific, psychological research only has about a 60-100 year history.

21. Much still to be discovered - prospects for considerable growth & opportunity. e.g., due to technology, new research techniques and directions are becoming available.

22. Observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon

23. Theory: An organised set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena.

24. Use theory to formulate research questions. Process of research

25. Develop a hypothesis or hypotheses A tentative and testable explanation(s) of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables Use the scientific method to design the study Process of research

26. Initial observation or question

27. Form a hypothesis

28. Design the study

29. Analyse the data and draw conclusions

30. Report the findings

31. Consider open questions

32. Act on open questions The research process Gerrig et al. (2008)

33. Quick Fun Survey What is your favourite colour?

34. What is your favourite number?

35. What sex is the number 4?

36. What sex is the number 8?

37. Design Your Own Psychological Study

38. Research questions Expressing topics of interest as research questions is a key first step, e.g., Is it bad to smack your children?

39. What is the effect of meditation on stress?

40. Do “smart drugs” really make people “smarter”?

41. My first study What changes in stress, anxiety, crisis and flow occur for novice abseilers?

42. Design your own study List topics you would like to research.

43. Create research questions & choose one.

44. What variables are to be measured?

45. What research method would you use?

46. What population and sampling method would you use?

47. Student research opportunities Research participation

48. Research seminars

49. Research news e.g., via Journal alerts

50. Google Alerts Research journals Hard copies

51. Electronic copies

52. Scientific method

53. Research is a way of thinking Researchers need to acknowledge & understand the limits of intuition & common sense

54. Philosophy of science

55. The scientific attitude

56. The scientific method

57. Science is based on… Knowledge of facts

58. Developing theories

59. Testing hypotheses

60. Public and repeatable procedures

61. If you are a scientist you believe that it is good to find out how the world works, that it is good to find out what the realities are, that it is good to turn over to mankind at large the greatest possible power to control the world... It is not possible to be a scientist unless you believe that the knowledge of the world, and the power which this gives, is a thing which is of intrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to help in the spread of knowledge, and are willing to take the consequences. - J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)

63. Critical thinking Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions: Examines assumptions

64. Discerns hidden values

65. Evaluates evidence

66. It is a good morning exercise for a research scientist to discard a pet hypothesis every day before breakfast - It keeps him [sic] young. - Konrad Lorenz

67. Set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimises error and yields dependable generalisations .

68. Its goal is to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity . Conclusions are objective when they are not influenced by emotions or personal biases . Scientific method

69. The doctrine that all events - physical, behavioural, and mental - are “determined” by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable . Concept of determinism

70. Theory-testing is the main function of research Observations lead to theory

71. Theory = a specific set of assumptions and principles about a phenomenon.

72. Derive testable hypotheses (or guesses / predictions)

73. Systematically test hypotheses in various conditions in order to determine the utility of the theory .

74. Theories, hypotheses & research observations Theories Low self-esteem feeds depression Hypothesis People with low self-esteem score higher on a depression scale Test with observations Administer tests of self-esteem and depression. See if a low score on one predicts a high score on the other.

75. Operationalisation Refers to how a fuzzy psychological construct is actually measured e.g., the concept of intelligence has been operationalised through a variety of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests

76. Variables are factors which can be controlled and/or measured in research

77. Two types: Independent Variable (IV) (or “predictors”)

78. Dependent Variable (DV) (or “outcomes”) Research variables

79. Independent vs. dependent variables Independent Variable(s) Dependent Variable(s)

80. Independent vs. dependent variables Independent Variable the factor that is controlled and manipulated by the researcher

81. the variable whose effect is being studied Dependent Variable the factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

82. in psychology it is usually a behaviour or mental process

83. Independent vs. dependent variables: Example IV: Graffiti or no graffiti on or near a letterbox DV: Whether or not a passerby takes an envelope with money clearly showing from a letterbox Results: Graffiti condition: 27% took the $

84. No graffiti condition: 13% took the $

85. Reliability Degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used

86. Stability, consistency Validity Extent to which a test measures what it was intended to test Reliability and validity

87. Distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer

88. Counter by: Standardisation: A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant

89. Operational definition: Define constructs in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence All variables in a research study must be given operational definitions Observer bias

90. Psychological research methods

91. Experimental – randomised sampling

92. Quasi-experimental – natural sampling

93. Non-experimental – cross-sectional sampling Psychological research methods

94. Experimental research method Experimenter manipulates the IVs, then measures the results on the DVs

95. Random assignment Control group = treat same as experimental group except for the IV manipulation

96. Experimental group = treat same as control group except for the IV manipulation

97. Resulting differences are concluded to be due to the IV

98. Alternative explanations to research can result from Confounding variables

99. Expectancy effects Placebo effect The more alternative explanations for a given result, the less confidence there is for an initial hypothesis Experimental research method

100. A variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that affects a participant’s behaviour e.g., Hawthorne effect Confounding variables add confusion and place the interpretation of the data at risk Confounding variable

101. Results that occur when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to the participants the kind of behaviour he or she expects, therefore, creating the expected reaction and/or outcome e.g., encouraging some kinds of responses in interviews Expectancy effect

102. Occurs when the experimental participants change their behaviour in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation. Placebo effect

103. Consistent procedures for giving instructions, responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being systematically varied Placebo control

104. Double-blind control

105. Between-subjects designs

106. Within-subjects designs Control procedures

107. The inclusion of an experimental condition in which the treatment is not administered

108. e.g., real pills vs. placebo pills Placebo control

109. Experimental procedure in which both the experimenter and the subject are unaware as to who received the treatment

110. Seen as the strongest way of controlling for experimenter and expectancy biases Double-blind control

111. Between-subjects Design Different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control condition Within-subjects Design Each participant is his or her own control Between-subjects vs. within-subects design

112. Ways of gathering psychological data

113. Qualitative – words, pictures

114. Quantitative – numbers

115. Mixed - words and numbers Qualitative vs. quantitative research data

116. Qualitative research Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important e.g., Historical accounts

117. Participant observation

118. In-depth interviews

119. Quantitative research Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts e.g., Psychological tests

120. Questionnaires

121. Physiological measures

122. Mixed methods Involves a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods.

123. Archival

124. Observations

125. Behavioural

126. Self-report surveys Mail

127. Interviews

128. Online Research methods Physiological

129. Experiential sampling e.g., with palm pilots Archival records

130. Information taken from existing records Examples include birth and death records, weather reports, voting patterns, and attendance figures Archival data

131. Observational research Researchers directly observe and record behaviour: Naturalistic observation - researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally

132. Tests - researcher presents stimuli or problems and records responses

133. Naturalistic observation Naturally occurring behaviour is viewed and recorded without attempting to manipulate or interfere the situation.

134. Field-rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise.

135. Behavioural measures Overt actions and reactions that are observed and recorded

136. Direct observations The behaviour is clearly visible and is easily recorded

137. Can be aided by technology

138. Self-report research Behaviour identified through a participant’s own observations and reports

139. People rate or describe their behaviour, opinion, or mental state e.g., via: Questionnaires

140. Rating scales e.g., from 1 to 7 rate your opinion of …

141. Determines extent to which two variables are related

142. Correlational Coefficient ( r ) Indicates the degree of relationship between two variables

143. Values of: - 1.0 = perfect negative correlation 0.0 = no correlation +1.0 = perfect positive correlation Correlational methods

144. Positive and negative correlations Correlational methods

145. Causal relationships and correlations Correlation does not equal causation

146. How can causality be demonstrated? e.g. Experimentally (explanatory)

147. Predictive, longitudinal studies

148. Correlation vs. causation

149. Laboratory research Purpose-designed research setting

150. Provides uniform conditions for all participants

151. Permits elimination of irrelevant factors

152. May seem artificial

153. Case study Intensive observation of a particular individual or a small group.

154. Aims to reveal things true of all.

155. Rich data, time consuming, difficult to generalise. Is language uniquely human?

156. Iron rod through head (frontal lobes)

157. Affected personality and behaviour

158. Suggested function localisation Case study example: Phineas Gage

159. Survey research Commonly used

160. Ascertains self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people

161. Ideally question a representative, random sample of people

162. Experiential sampling

163. Replication Reconducting a previous study to see whether its findings are repeatable (reliable).

164. Nothing is generally “proven” until at least several studies have been conducted showing similar results.

165. Usually replicate with different participants, in different situations, in different cultures.

166. Sampling Sampling

167. Sample : Subset of a population selected as participants in an experiment Representation Sample : A subset of the population being studied Population : Entire set of individuals to which generalisations will be made based on an experimental sample Sampling

168. Ethical issues in research Guidelines and procedures for conducting ethical psychological research

169. History of research ethics Nuremberg code (1948): voluntary consent is essential

170. benefits of research must outweigh the risks. Thalidomide (late 1950's-early 1960's)

171. Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972).

172. Declaration of Helinski (1964)

173. Ethical issues in psychological research Right to privacy

174. Informed consent use of deception Animal rights Is there justification for discomfort or harm a research procedure may produce? APA publishes ethical guidelines

175. Research participants are asked to sign statements indicating they have been informed as to the potential risks and benefits of the study and consent to participate. Informed consent

176. Risks to the participants must be minimised, especially in studies of more personal aspects of behaviour.

177. And there must be likely gains which outweigh the risks/costs. Risk/gain assessment

178. For some research it is not possible to tell participants the intention of the study without biasing the results Australian Psychological Society (2007) Code of Ethics has explicit guidelines

179. National Health and Medical Research Council (NH-MRC) has further restrictions Intentional deception

180. At the end of all studies each participant must be provided with as much information about the study as possible in age-appropriate style. Debriefing

181. Summary Research is formalised curiousity

182. Discover your research passions & follow them  Develop research questions, theory, and hypotheses – then test scientifically. Maintain objectivity

183. “ Failed” research can often tells us as much as “successful” research.

184. Summary IVs = predictors; DVs = outcomes

185. Biases: observer, participants; use standardisation and controls

186. Ways of gathering data: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed

187. Research methods: Archival, Lab research, Survey, Observation, Case study

188. Ethics: Consent, privacy, risk etc.

189. References Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Psychology and life (Australian edition.). Sydney: Pearson.

190. Myers, D. G. (2007). Thinking critically with psychological science (Ch1). In Psychology (8 th ed.) . New York: Worth.

191. University of Gronigen. People surrounded by grafitti more likely to steal .

192. Open Office Impress This presentation was made using Open Office Impress.

193. Free and open source software.

194. http://www.openoffice.org/product/impress.html