This document provides an introduction to communication and defines key concepts. It discusses communication as a process involving transmission of messages from a source to a receiver. Several communication models are described, including Lasswell's model focusing on who says what through which channel to whom with what effect, and Berlo's SMCR model outlining the source, message, channel and receiver. Barriers to communication and levels of communication from intrapersonal to interpersonal to mass communication are also covered. Mass media channels like radio, television and newspapers are examined along with their advantages and disadvantages for development communication. The document concludes with discussions on communication competence and references.

1. Introduction to
Communication
DEVC 205
Ernesto D. Doloso Jr., LPT, MA
PhD in Development Studies
University of the Philippines – Los Banos

2. Have you
imagined how
the world would
go without
communication?

3. Are you
aware that
you are
spending
most of your
waking hours
talking?

4. Definitions of
Communication

5. Communication
 “the process of sharing and the relationship of the participants in
this process” –Kincaid and Schramm
 the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmits
stimuli (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of other
individuals (communicatee) –Black and Bryant (1992)
 The transmission of information, ideas, attitudes, or emotion from
one person or group to another (or others) primarily through
symbols -Theodorson andTheodorson (1969)
 a process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means
of some channel to produce a response from the receiver, in
accordance with the intention of the source -SRA Sourcebook,
1996

6.  Communication is the dual or two-way process of
transmitting messages from one person to another.
It is the symbolic interaction between two or more
people that influences each other’s behavior.
Speech and language are only a portion of the larger
process of communication.

7.  Language is the medium or vehicle through which
messages are sent and received while speech is
one of its modes. It is the verbal means of
communicating or conveying meaning.

8. According to Kincaid and Schramm:
 Not all communication has to be human communication
 Not all participants in a communication process have to be present at the same time
 Because of information and the ways with which man creates, maintains, stores, retrieves,
processes, and interprets it, communication can take place over large distances of space and time
 Not all communication takes place in words
 Communication does not always require two or more participants
 Thinking is a form of communication

9. Communication as a Process
 On-going
 Cyclic
 Ever-changing
 No beginning,
no end
 Interdependent
 Interrelated

10. As a process, it has at least four
attributes (SRA Sourcebook)
 Dynamic
 Systematic
 Symbolic Interaction
 Meaning is personally
constructed

11. Elements of the Process
(Berlo’s Model of Communication, 1961)

12.  Source
 Receiver
 Message
 Message Content
 Channel
 Effect (Overt, Covert)
 Feedback
Elements of the Process

13. Stages of Communication Process
 Stimulus/stimuli- triggering
event of the communication
process
 Ideation- an idea or several
ideas are formulated and
organized to answer a need to
communicate
 Encoding- the ideas, which
have been organized in the
ideation stage, are put into
code to make transmission
possible. To represent these
ideas, symbols in the form of
sounds or words are made use
of.

14. Stages of Communication Process
 Transmission- the encoded message is sent
through a chosen appropriate channel or
medium
 Reception- the message reaches the receiver
 Decoding- the codes or symbols used to
transmit messages are converted into ideas
or mental images to be interpreted by the
receiver
 Understanding- the message, which has
been transformed into thought or mental
images, having been interpreted now
becomes clear to the receiver. If he/she does
not understand, miscommunication sets in.
 Action- the receiver responds to the
message received by sending feedback

15. Stages of Communication Process

16. Communication Models

17. Lasswell’s Model
“Who,
SaysWhat,
In Which
Channel,
To Whom,
With What
Effect?”

18. Criticism to Lasswell’s
Communication Model
The model took for granted that
communication is mainly a persuasive
process, that the communicator
always has some in- tent to influence
the receiver.
It omits the elements of feedback.

19. Shannon and Weaver’s
“Mathematical Model”
 What kind of communication channel can bring through the
maximum amount of signals?
 How much of transmitted signs will be destroyed by noise under
way from transmitter to receiver?- (McQuail and Windahl, 1981)

20. Criticism
It is a one-way, linear model

21. Newcomb’s Model
 Fiske argues that
Newcomb’s model is
significant because it
introduces the role
of communication in
a society or social
relationship. To
Newcomb,
communication
maintains
equilibrium within a
social system. Thus
ABX represents a
system.

22. Osgood and Schramm’s Model
 This model focuses on the
main actors of the process—
unlike the Shannon and
Weaver model, which
focuses on the channels that
mediate between sender
and receiver.
 Schramm and Osgood show
the actors in communication
to be equals who perform
the identical tasks of
encoding, interpreting, and
decoding messages.

23. Criticism
 It does not explain communication situations where there
is little or no feedback (e.g., mass communication).
Furthermore, it seems to connote a feeling of equality in
communication.

24. Gerbner’s Model
 George Gerbner introduced
another linear model. Fiske
(1982) explains that
Gerbner’s model is a more
complex version of
Shannon and Weaver’s. It is
unique in that it allows us
to see the communication
process as one that consists
of “two alternating
dimensions—the
perceptual or receptive,
and the communicating or
means and control
dimension.”

25. Westley and MacLeans’s Model
 Fiske (1982) believes
that the social need for
information also
underlies the Westley
and MacLean model of
communication. He
looks upon the 1957
model as an extension
of Newcomb’s 1953
model. However, the
Westley and MacLean
model was created
with the mass media in
mind. Thus, while it is
rooted in Newcomb’s
ABX model, it has a
new element: C.

26. Berlo’s Model
 Perhaps the most well-
known (certainly one of
the most cited) model of
communication is David
Berlo’s model of
communication. Like the
other linear models,
Berlo delineates the
different actors of the
communication process
and the elements that
mediate between them.
His model began as the
SMCR model (Source
Message Channel
Receiver).

27. Dance Helical Model
 The circular model of
communication (e.g., Osgood
and Schramm’s model)
suggest that communication
is circular, that it goes full
circle to the same point from
which it started. The helical
model, however, portrays the
communication process more
accurately—in that it shows
the communication process
as moving.

28. Kincaid’s Convergence Model
 In 1981, D. Lawrence Kincaid brought forth his
Convergence Model of Communication. As illustrated
below, it shows a process of convergence through which
participants share information so that mutual
understanding is reached.

29. Aspects of Communication

30.  Verbal or linguistic aspect- makes use of
words; may be oral or written, formal or
informal

31.  Nonverbal or extra linguistic- does not make use
of words but may enhance or change the linguistic
code.

32. Elements of Nonverbal
Communication
 Nonlinguistic elements- devices used in conveying
messages without entirely relying on speech or language.
 Paralinguistic elements- include the following attributes of
voice that accompany the words we say: vocal quality,
pitch, tempo, volume, and juncture. Our voice is capable
of various dimensions making it possible to identify one
person from another.
 Metalinguistic element-takes place in the mind of
communicators – their awareness of the component units
of language like sound, words, phrases and sentences.

33. Nonlinguistic
elements
 KINESICS – language of the body
 PROXEMICS – language of space
 CHRONEMICS – language of time
 HAPTICS – language of touch
 OLFATICS – language of smell
 ARTEFACTUAL – language of object and
physical appearance

34. Types and Levels of
Communication
 Intrapersonal- communication with oneself. It
involves thinking, remembering and feeling

35. interpersonal
 Interpersonal- communication among a relatively small
number of people. Much of our communication takes place
at this level.
Dyadic Communication – communication
between two individuals
Triadic
Communication –
communication
participated in by
three individuals
Small Group Communication –
communication of more than three
individuals

36. mass comm and
other media
 Mass communication- this covers other forms of public
communication. These are printed form, radio, television,
and movies. The tools/materials used are called mass
media.

37. Radio
 Radio is available in almost all countries, reaching
mass audiences cheaply and rapidly (Barghouti, 1973).
Among its advantages, radio:
1) is available and affordable—even in remote
communities
2) can repeat messages at low cost
3) reaches illiterate audiences
4) supports other communication channels
5) Is flexible in style (ranging from drama to lectures,
folksongs to interviews)
6) announces events and developments as they happen
7) Creates awareness and sets agenda of priorities for
people’s attention.

38. Can you think of radio’s
disadvantages?

39. Cannot…
 illustrate complicated technical concepts
 gauge immediate audience reaction, participation, or
interest in messages broadcast
 Provide or respond to immediate feedback
 repeat messages upon demand
 Pace itself according to audience needs
 overcome some geographical barriers (such as high
mountain ranges) to reach the remotest communities.

40. Television
 The beauty of television lies in its
ability to communicate or explain
complicated messages because of
its combination of sound and
picture (Barghouti, 1975).
 Among the mass media, it is the
closest to face-to-face
communication and is successful in
reaching out to both literate and
illiterate audiences.

41. Disadvantages (Barghouti, 1975)
 accessibility and
availability
 Educational/development
shows face severe
competition from
entertainment programs
 Preparation of
development
communication programs
forTV requires much
planning, preparation,
technical, creative, and
communication skills than
for other media
 It costs plenty of money to
produce and airTV
programs.

42. Newspapers
 Philippine Information Agency data
show that fewer Filipinos read the
newspapers than listen to the radio
or watchTV.
 Nevertheless, development
communication uses newspapers
because, according to Barghouti
(1973), they can present technical
data in clearly de- signed text and
provide detailed information.
 Furthermore, he feels that
important topics can be covered in a
series of articles. News- papers are
still influential in creating awareness
and mobilizing public opinion. And,
like other print media, articles can
be shared or kept as reference
materials.

43. Disadvantages
 Audience is limited to
those who can read.
 Price is expensive
especially on a daily
basis.
 One-way
communication
 Small communities or
businesses have
difficulties in
publishing
news/feature articles
for publication

44. Other Media
 Cinema
 FolkTheater
 Wall Painting and Billboards
 Video Forum
 Filmstrips
 Slides
 Flipcharts
 Flannel boards

45. Barriers in Communication
 Noise - is any interference with the message traveling along the
channel...which may lead to the signal received being different
from that sent -(Chandler, n.d.)
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of
problems of communication:
1. Technical problems — how accurately the message can be
transmitted
2. Semantic problems — how precisely the meaning is conveyed
3. Effectiveness problems—how effectively does the received
message affect behavior

46. Other classifications of
communication barrier
 Physical barrier (environmental factors, channel noise)
 Psychological-cultural barriers (semantic noise)
 Social barriers (socio-psychological barriers)
 Ethnocentrism

47. Communication Competence
 Rothwell (1992) noted that knowing what
constitutes human communication does
not automatically make you an effective
communicator. He points out that one
must first understand what it means to
communicate competently.
Qualities of a Competent Communicator
1) They have aWe-not-Me Orientation
2) They understand communication
effectiveness
3) They have a sense of appropriateness
Note: Competence is “a judgment of an
individual’s proficiency in a particular set
of circumstances”.

48. Components of Communication
Competence
 Definitions:
1) Littlejohn and Jabusch (1982) who
perceived communication competence
as the “ability and willingness of an
individual to participate responsibly in a
transaction in such a way as to maximize
the outcome of shared meanings.”
2) Trenhold (1988)who defined it as the
“ability to communicate in a personally
effective and socially appropriate
manner.”
3) Adler andTowne (1990) who viewed it as
the “ability to get what you are seeking
from others in a manner that maintains
the relationship on terms acceptable to
both you and the other person.”

49. Shockley-Zalabak’s four
elements of
communication
competence
Knowledge
Skills
Sensitivity
Values

50. public communication
 Public communication- this involves communication
between one and several other people.This is the large
group type of communication. A public speech is an
example. Primarily, it is a monologue one engages in
rather than a dialog.

51. Organizational
communication-
communication in
the organization

52. Questions will be
entertained after
the reporting 

53. Thank You!
Maraming Salamat!
Dios Mabalos!

54. References
Flor, A. (2006). Introduction to Development
Communication. ResearchGate
Mafelopulos, P. (2008). Development Communication
Sourcebook. Washington, DC.World Bank.
Littlejohn, S. and Foss, K. (2009). Encyclopedia of
CommunicationTheories. Sage Publication. New Mexico