This document provides an overview of instructional design and learning theory from a graduate student's paper. It discusses the origins and key concepts of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior changes and conditioning. Cognitivism considers internal mental processes and views learning as involving the acquisition of cognitive structures. Constructivism posits that learners construct their own understandings through experiences and mental schema. The document aims to help differentiate these three major learning theories and their implications for instructional design.
Theory of Teacher Education Behavioral Perspectivemarina ilyas
The document discusses teacher education from a behavioral perspective, specifically operant conditioning. It covers several topics:
1. The objectives of pre-service teacher training programs, which include imparting subject matter knowledge, developing pedagogical skills, understanding child psychology, and developing proper teaching attitudes.
2. The role of teacher educators is to transmit knowledge to prospective teachers and train them in research-backed pedagogical behaviors. Prospective teachers receive extensive practice and repetition to reinforce learning.
3. Behaviorist principles like Thorndike's law of exercise are applied, with a focus on rote learning, drills, repetition to prevent extinction of behaviors, and assessing mental states for optimal learning. The goal
This document defines models of teaching and describes several specific models. It begins by defining a teaching model as a plan that guides curriculum, instruction, and a teacher's actions. Teaching models aim to cause specific changes in student behavior. Key components of models include a focus, syntax, social system, principles of reaction, and support system. Models are categorized into four families based on their goals: information processing, personal development, social interaction, and behavioral modification. Several specific models are then described in detail, including the Concept Attainment Model and Inquiry Training Model.
The document discusses the philosophical foundations of curriculum. It explains that philosophy influences curriculum goals, content, and organization by providing perspectives on the nature and sources of knowledge. The two main philosophical theories discussed are rationalism, which views the mind as the source of true knowledge, and empiricism, which sees knowledge as derived from sense experience and the external environment. Common educational philosophies mentioned include idealism, realism, perennialism, essentialism, experimentalism, existentialism, constructivism, and reconstructivism.
Role of Education in National integrationASHUTOSH JENA
Education plays an important role in promoting national integration in India. The government has taken several steps to emphasize this, such as establishing the Education Commission to promote education's role in national development. Curriculums and educational institutions also contribute by teaching subjects from a national perspective, celebrating national days, and encouraging co-curricular activities. Teachers are seen as central to this effort through the way they teach, by sharing stories of national heroes, and by not discriminating against students.
Constructivism is a learning theory that posits that individuals construct knowledge and meaning from their experiences. According to constructivism, learning is an active process where learners build knowledge by interpreting new information through their existing mental frameworks and experiences. Constructivist teaching focuses on involving learners actively in the learning process and encourages students to construct their own understandings rather than passively receiving information. Key principles of constructivism include that knowledge is socially constructed, learning is contextual and interpretive, and people learn by reflecting on their experiences.
This document discusses curriculum development and provides definitions, importance, and steps in the curriculum development process. It defines curriculum development as a planned, purposeful, and progressive process aimed at creating positive improvements in education. The key steps outlined are: 1) identifying problems, 2) assessing needs, 3) defining goals and objectives, 4) choosing educational strategies, 5) implementing the curriculum, and 6) evaluating and providing feedback. The overall purpose of curriculum development is to address societal needs and improve education, individuals, and society.
Cooperative learning involves small groups working together to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member is responsible for their own learning and helping others. Collaborative learning also involves groups working together, but is based on the idea that learning occurs through social interaction and discussion within the group. Both approaches aim to make learning more participatory by giving students active roles rather than having them passively receive knowledge. The key differences are that cooperative learning divides work among group members, while collaborative learning involves more discussion and joint problem solving.
Theory of Teacher Education Behavioral Perspectivemarina ilyas
The document discusses teacher education from a behavioral perspective, specifically operant conditioning. It covers several topics:
1. The objectives of pre-service teacher training programs, which include imparting subject matter knowledge, developing pedagogical skills, understanding child psychology, and developing proper teaching attitudes.
2. The role of teacher educators is to transmit knowledge to prospective teachers and train them in research-backed pedagogical behaviors. Prospective teachers receive extensive practice and repetition to reinforce learning.
3. Behaviorist principles like Thorndike's law of exercise are applied, with a focus on rote learning, drills, repetition to prevent extinction of behaviors, and assessing mental states for optimal learning. The goal
This document defines models of teaching and describes several specific models. It begins by defining a teaching model as a plan that guides curriculum, instruction, and a teacher's actions. Teaching models aim to cause specific changes in student behavior. Key components of models include a focus, syntax, social system, principles of reaction, and support system. Models are categorized into four families based on their goals: information processing, personal development, social interaction, and behavioral modification. Several specific models are then described in detail, including the Concept Attainment Model and Inquiry Training Model.
The document discusses the philosophical foundations of curriculum. It explains that philosophy influences curriculum goals, content, and organization by providing perspectives on the nature and sources of knowledge. The two main philosophical theories discussed are rationalism, which views the mind as the source of true knowledge, and empiricism, which sees knowledge as derived from sense experience and the external environment. Common educational philosophies mentioned include idealism, realism, perennialism, essentialism, experimentalism, existentialism, constructivism, and reconstructivism.
Role of Education in National integrationASHUTOSH JENA
Education plays an important role in promoting national integration in India. The government has taken several steps to emphasize this, such as establishing the Education Commission to promote education's role in national development. Curriculums and educational institutions also contribute by teaching subjects from a national perspective, celebrating national days, and encouraging co-curricular activities. Teachers are seen as central to this effort through the way they teach, by sharing stories of national heroes, and by not discriminating against students.
Constructivism is a learning theory that posits that individuals construct knowledge and meaning from their experiences. According to constructivism, learning is an active process where learners build knowledge by interpreting new information through their existing mental frameworks and experiences. Constructivist teaching focuses on involving learners actively in the learning process and encourages students to construct their own understandings rather than passively receiving information. Key principles of constructivism include that knowledge is socially constructed, learning is contextual and interpretive, and people learn by reflecting on their experiences.
This document discusses curriculum development and provides definitions, importance, and steps in the curriculum development process. It defines curriculum development as a planned, purposeful, and progressive process aimed at creating positive improvements in education. The key steps outlined are: 1) identifying problems, 2) assessing needs, 3) defining goals and objectives, 4) choosing educational strategies, 5) implementing the curriculum, and 6) evaluating and providing feedback. The overall purpose of curriculum development is to address societal needs and improve education, individuals, and society.
Cooperative learning involves small groups working together to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member is responsible for their own learning and helping others. Collaborative learning also involves groups working together, but is based on the idea that learning occurs through social interaction and discussion within the group. Both approaches aim to make learning more participatory by giving students active roles rather than having them passively receive knowledge. The key differences are that cooperative learning divides work among group members, while collaborative learning involves more discussion and joint problem solving.
The document describes the inquiry method of education. It discusses that the inquiry method is student-centered and focuses on asking questions to drive learning. It outlines three phases of inquiry-based learning: interaction, clarification, and questioning. For each phase, it provides details on the activities and tone. It also discusses the merits, including that it allows students to learn independently and creatively. The demerits are that it is time-consuming, requires a creative teacher, and not all students may benefit equally.
This document provides an overview of action research. It defines action research as a systematic process conducted by teachers and others in educational settings to improve their practices and student learning. The history and key characteristics of action research are described. Practical and participatory types of action research are outlined. The document discusses when action research should be used, important ethical issues, and the typical steps and processes involved in conducting an action research study. Evaluation of action research focuses on addressing practical issues and empowering collaborators through reflection and action planning.
Connectivism is a learning theory developed for the digital age that emphasizes learning as a process of forming connections between ideas and information sources. The theory proposes that knowledge is distributed across networks and that learning occurs through making connections between nodes of information. According to connectivism, the ability to see connections between fields and ideas is a core skill, and learning involves decision-making as a process. In the classroom, connectivism promotes collaborative and discussion-based learning that allows students to make choices and draw on diverse perspectives to solve problems and make sense of information.
What is Textbook ? Features of a good TextbookJishna Mavila
This document discusses the meaning, definition, and characteristics of a good textbook. It begins by defining a textbook as a standard book used for teaching and learning that is organized according to the curriculum. Textbooks are authored by experts in the subject area and take into account the intended readers. The document then discusses the physical and academic aspects that make for a good textbook. Physically, a good textbook has an appropriate size, strong binding, reasonable cost, and clear printing. Academically, it has detailed explanations, relevant content organized by the syllabus, a simple style suitable for the audience, and questions to conclude lessons. Overall, the document emphasizes that textbooks provide organized instruction to aid both teaching and learning.
Action research is a type of social research initiated to solve an immediate problems, led by individuals working in teams with others. It involves the process of actively participating in an organization change situation whilst conducting research.
The document discusses a humanistic curriculum, which focuses on the holistic development of students by addressing their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development. A humanistic curriculum is rooted in humanistic psychology and aims to develop students' self-concept, interpersonal skills, and ultimately self-actualization. It views students as individuals and facilitates their growth through participatory learning methods rather than a didactic approach.
The document discusses coaching as an approach to teaching and learning in higher education. It defines coaching as a facilitative and non-directive process focused on active learning where the coach guides the learner through questioning rather than imparting information. Coaching fosters reflective practice and helps learners develop skills in learning how to learn. When applied to information literacy instruction, coaching embodies key concepts like learning as a social process and helps practitioners develop a more reflexive approach.
Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests people actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. Key founders of constructivism include Jean Piaget and John Dewey. According to constructivism, learning involves a process of assimilation of new information and accommodation or adjustment of existing knowledge. Constructivism emphasizes hands-on, active learning and problem solving over rote memorization. It suggests learning occurs through collaboration and social interaction.
The document discusses curriculum reforms in India that were undertaken through the National Curriculum Framework 2005. It outlines the guiding principles of NCF 2005, which included connecting curriculum to real life, ensuring learning moves beyond rote memorization, and making examinations more integrated with classroom learning. The document also summarizes recommendations from past education commissions and policies that shaped curriculum reforms, and notes the focus is now on teacher education reforms to help achieve the goals of universal, equitable, and inclusive education.
This document discusses and compares quantitative and qualitative research paradigms. It defines key terms like paradigm and discusses thinkers like Kuhn who introduced the concept. It outlines the characteristics and major types of research for both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Some merits and demerits of each paradigm are provided. Finally, criteria for selecting which paradigm is most appropriate for a given research study are presented.
This document discusses the philosophy of realism in education. It begins by noting that Aristotle is considered the father of realism. Realism took on new importance with the contributions of John Locke. Realism believes that all knowledge is derived from experience in the real world of nature, and that the universe is made up of matter and energy. Realists believe the world operates according to natural laws that can be discovered through scientific methods. Realism focuses education on equipping students with skills to understand and master the physical environment, and to adjust to approved social behaviors. Realism prioritizes subjects like science and math in the curriculum.
The document discusses definitions of curriculum from various academics. A curriculum is more than just a syllabus, which lists content to be assessed, but also includes the methods and educational activities used by teachers. It typically includes objectives, content selection and organization, implied or explicit learning patterns, and an evaluation program. Curriculum also encompasses all the planned learning experiences for students under school guidance. There is no single agreed-upon definition of curriculum.
Multicultural education aims to increase educational equity and is a progressive approach to transforming education. It has goals of creating a safe learning environment for all, strengthening cultural awareness, and preventing prejudice. James Banks identified four approaches to multicultural education: contributions, additive, transformational, and social action. The contributions approach celebrates various cultures, while the additive approach incorporates diverse perspectives without changing curriculum. The transformational approach changes curriculum to view concepts from multiple ethnic views. The social action approach involves students in activities for social change.
The document discusses the phases and stages of teaching according to Dr. Jackson. It divides the teaching process into 3 phases:
1. Pre-active phase (planning stage) which involves tasks like lesson planning, preparing materials, and assessing students.
2. Interactive phase (implementation stage) which is the actual classroom teaching and involves strategies and spontaneous responses.
3. Post-active phase (evaluation stage) which provides feedback to improve teacher and student performance through assessment of learning objectives and instructional methods.
Curriculum materials are the physical resources used to support curriculum content, including textbooks, workbooks, manipulatives, charts and posters. They are the conventional resources used to present curriculum content and allow for interaction with the material. Curriculum materials provide the tools for teaching curriculum in both traditional classroom settings and home-based education.
The document discusses learner-centered curriculum and contrasts it with teacher-centered approaches. It outlines that learner-centered curriculum focuses on individual growth and development, with the teacher as a facilitator rather than instructor. Key aspects include respecting the child, allowing freedom of action, and recognizing students' unique needs, interests and goals in curriculum design. Assessment is open-ended and meant to involve students examining their own learning rather than focusing on grades. The goal is to empower students to take ownership of their learning process.
The document summarizes research on the gap between findings from educational research and government policies on teacher education in India. It outlines some key findings from research, including that teachers agree students should be actively involved in learning but differ on goals for student motivation versus intellectual engagement. However, government policies do not always incorporate research findings and instead consider them as just one input. The document also reviews India's legal framework and policies for teacher education over time.
Edward Thorndike's theory of learning through trial and error proposed that learning occurs through associations formed between stimuli and responses. When a response leads to a satisfying outcome, the stimulus-response association is strengthened. Thorndike identified three laws of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect. His theory emphasized that learning is gradual, motivated, and occurs through random responses that are strengthened when they are successful. Thorndike's work laid the foundation for behaviorism and operant conditioning.
This document discusses the philosophy of perennialism in education. It outlines the major exponents like Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The key points are that perennialism is a teacher-centered philosophy that focuses on enduring concepts and ideas that have lasted for centuries. It emphasizes a universal, core curriculum centered around great books and believes that human nature is permanent and unchanging. The role of the teacher is as an authority figure and role model, while students are expected to be obedient and learn in the same way through methods like memorization and drill. Criticisms of perennialism include that it is too focused on the past and ignores contemporary realities.
Learning theories provide frameworks to understand how people learn. The main theories discussed are behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, social learning, and connectivism. Each theory emphasizes different factors that influence learning such as stimuli, mental processes, social interactions, and networking. Memory and transfer of learning also operate differently according to each theory. Technology can be used to support various aspects of each theory, such as simulations, games, social networking, and online collaboration. Understanding learning theories helps instructional designers develop effective learning experiences.
This document contains schedules for classes on various dates from 4/2556 to 25/2557. It lists the room number, time, subject, and teacher for each class. There are schedules for 6 students/classes numbered 1 through 6 with details for each class/student. The document also contains schedules for 4 labs numbered 4401 through 4507 with details about the room number and topics for each lab session.
The document describes the inquiry method of education. It discusses that the inquiry method is student-centered and focuses on asking questions to drive learning. It outlines three phases of inquiry-based learning: interaction, clarification, and questioning. For each phase, it provides details on the activities and tone. It also discusses the merits, including that it allows students to learn independently and creatively. The demerits are that it is time-consuming, requires a creative teacher, and not all students may benefit equally.
This document provides an overview of action research. It defines action research as a systematic process conducted by teachers and others in educational settings to improve their practices and student learning. The history and key characteristics of action research are described. Practical and participatory types of action research are outlined. The document discusses when action research should be used, important ethical issues, and the typical steps and processes involved in conducting an action research study. Evaluation of action research focuses on addressing practical issues and empowering collaborators through reflection and action planning.
Connectivism is a learning theory developed for the digital age that emphasizes learning as a process of forming connections between ideas and information sources. The theory proposes that knowledge is distributed across networks and that learning occurs through making connections between nodes of information. According to connectivism, the ability to see connections between fields and ideas is a core skill, and learning involves decision-making as a process. In the classroom, connectivism promotes collaborative and discussion-based learning that allows students to make choices and draw on diverse perspectives to solve problems and make sense of information.
What is Textbook ? Features of a good TextbookJishna Mavila
This document discusses the meaning, definition, and characteristics of a good textbook. It begins by defining a textbook as a standard book used for teaching and learning that is organized according to the curriculum. Textbooks are authored by experts in the subject area and take into account the intended readers. The document then discusses the physical and academic aspects that make for a good textbook. Physically, a good textbook has an appropriate size, strong binding, reasonable cost, and clear printing. Academically, it has detailed explanations, relevant content organized by the syllabus, a simple style suitable for the audience, and questions to conclude lessons. Overall, the document emphasizes that textbooks provide organized instruction to aid both teaching and learning.
Action research is a type of social research initiated to solve an immediate problems, led by individuals working in teams with others. It involves the process of actively participating in an organization change situation whilst conducting research.
The document discusses a humanistic curriculum, which focuses on the holistic development of students by addressing their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development. A humanistic curriculum is rooted in humanistic psychology and aims to develop students' self-concept, interpersonal skills, and ultimately self-actualization. It views students as individuals and facilitates their growth through participatory learning methods rather than a didactic approach.
The document discusses coaching as an approach to teaching and learning in higher education. It defines coaching as a facilitative and non-directive process focused on active learning where the coach guides the learner through questioning rather than imparting information. Coaching fosters reflective practice and helps learners develop skills in learning how to learn. When applied to information literacy instruction, coaching embodies key concepts like learning as a social process and helps practitioners develop a more reflexive approach.
Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests people actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. Key founders of constructivism include Jean Piaget and John Dewey. According to constructivism, learning involves a process of assimilation of new information and accommodation or adjustment of existing knowledge. Constructivism emphasizes hands-on, active learning and problem solving over rote memorization. It suggests learning occurs through collaboration and social interaction.
The document discusses curriculum reforms in India that were undertaken through the National Curriculum Framework 2005. It outlines the guiding principles of NCF 2005, which included connecting curriculum to real life, ensuring learning moves beyond rote memorization, and making examinations more integrated with classroom learning. The document also summarizes recommendations from past education commissions and policies that shaped curriculum reforms, and notes the focus is now on teacher education reforms to help achieve the goals of universal, equitable, and inclusive education.
This document discusses and compares quantitative and qualitative research paradigms. It defines key terms like paradigm and discusses thinkers like Kuhn who introduced the concept. It outlines the characteristics and major types of research for both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Some merits and demerits of each paradigm are provided. Finally, criteria for selecting which paradigm is most appropriate for a given research study are presented.
This document discusses the philosophy of realism in education. It begins by noting that Aristotle is considered the father of realism. Realism took on new importance with the contributions of John Locke. Realism believes that all knowledge is derived from experience in the real world of nature, and that the universe is made up of matter and energy. Realists believe the world operates according to natural laws that can be discovered through scientific methods. Realism focuses education on equipping students with skills to understand and master the physical environment, and to adjust to approved social behaviors. Realism prioritizes subjects like science and math in the curriculum.
The document discusses definitions of curriculum from various academics. A curriculum is more than just a syllabus, which lists content to be assessed, but also includes the methods and educational activities used by teachers. It typically includes objectives, content selection and organization, implied or explicit learning patterns, and an evaluation program. Curriculum also encompasses all the planned learning experiences for students under school guidance. There is no single agreed-upon definition of curriculum.
Multicultural education aims to increase educational equity and is a progressive approach to transforming education. It has goals of creating a safe learning environment for all, strengthening cultural awareness, and preventing prejudice. James Banks identified four approaches to multicultural education: contributions, additive, transformational, and social action. The contributions approach celebrates various cultures, while the additive approach incorporates diverse perspectives without changing curriculum. The transformational approach changes curriculum to view concepts from multiple ethnic views. The social action approach involves students in activities for social change.
The document discusses the phases and stages of teaching according to Dr. Jackson. It divides the teaching process into 3 phases:
1. Pre-active phase (planning stage) which involves tasks like lesson planning, preparing materials, and assessing students.
2. Interactive phase (implementation stage) which is the actual classroom teaching and involves strategies and spontaneous responses.
3. Post-active phase (evaluation stage) which provides feedback to improve teacher and student performance through assessment of learning objectives and instructional methods.
Curriculum materials are the physical resources used to support curriculum content, including textbooks, workbooks, manipulatives, charts and posters. They are the conventional resources used to present curriculum content and allow for interaction with the material. Curriculum materials provide the tools for teaching curriculum in both traditional classroom settings and home-based education.
The document discusses learner-centered curriculum and contrasts it with teacher-centered approaches. It outlines that learner-centered curriculum focuses on individual growth and development, with the teacher as a facilitator rather than instructor. Key aspects include respecting the child, allowing freedom of action, and recognizing students' unique needs, interests and goals in curriculum design. Assessment is open-ended and meant to involve students examining their own learning rather than focusing on grades. The goal is to empower students to take ownership of their learning process.
The document summarizes research on the gap between findings from educational research and government policies on teacher education in India. It outlines some key findings from research, including that teachers agree students should be actively involved in learning but differ on goals for student motivation versus intellectual engagement. However, government policies do not always incorporate research findings and instead consider them as just one input. The document also reviews India's legal framework and policies for teacher education over time.
Edward Thorndike's theory of learning through trial and error proposed that learning occurs through associations formed between stimuli and responses. When a response leads to a satisfying outcome, the stimulus-response association is strengthened. Thorndike identified three laws of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect. His theory emphasized that learning is gradual, motivated, and occurs through random responses that are strengthened when they are successful. Thorndike's work laid the foundation for behaviorism and operant conditioning.
This document discusses the philosophy of perennialism in education. It outlines the major exponents like Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The key points are that perennialism is a teacher-centered philosophy that focuses on enduring concepts and ideas that have lasted for centuries. It emphasizes a universal, core curriculum centered around great books and believes that human nature is permanent and unchanging. The role of the teacher is as an authority figure and role model, while students are expected to be obedient and learn in the same way through methods like memorization and drill. Criticisms of perennialism include that it is too focused on the past and ignores contemporary realities.
Learning theories provide frameworks to understand how people learn. The main theories discussed are behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, social learning, and connectivism. Each theory emphasizes different factors that influence learning such as stimuli, mental processes, social interactions, and networking. Memory and transfer of learning also operate differently according to each theory. Technology can be used to support various aspects of each theory, such as simulations, games, social networking, and online collaboration. Understanding learning theories helps instructional designers develop effective learning experiences.
This document contains schedules for classes on various dates from 4/2556 to 25/2557. It lists the room number, time, subject, and teacher for each class. There are schedules for 6 students/classes numbered 1 through 6 with details for each class/student. The document also contains schedules for 4 labs numbered 4401 through 4507 with details about the room number and topics for each lab session.
The document discusses regulations for full mobile number portability (MNP) in India. Key points:
1) The MNP 6th Amendment Regulations came into force in May 2015 and enabled inter-circle and inter-service area porting of mobile numbers, moving beyond just intra-circle MNP.
2) The regulations defined "MNP zone" and made other changes to facilitate full MNP across license areas.
3) A subscriber can now port their number to a new operator while their previous operator has 15 days to settle any outstanding bills before the number is disconnected.
This document provides examples and definitions for 10 phrasal verbs in English:
1. Wake up - means to get up
2. Brew up - means to prepare a drink
3. Come back - means to return to a place
4. Get out - no definition provided
5. Look down on - means to despise or disrespect someone
6. Put down - means to write someone's name on a list or document to include them
7. Make up - has multiple meanings depending on context
8. Let up - means to improve or stop talking constantly
9. Put away - means to put items away in their proper place
10. Try up - means to trip or cause
El documento critica el sistema ético-legal en Colombia para los contadores públicos. Señala que la Ley 43 de 1990 que contiene el código de ética a veces no se cumple completamente. Los contadores a veces se ven obligados a tomar decisiones no éticas para mantener sus trabajos. La norma más violada es el Artículo 37 sobre principios como integridad y objetividad. Las violaciones pueden resultar en sanciones como la pérdida de la licencia. Los contadores deben asumir gran responsabilidad y honestidad en su trabajo para cumplir con la ética.
Karnataka Postal Circle is hiring for various postal assistant and sorting assistant positions in Karnataka. The positions are full time and the hiring process involves a written test. The notification provides eligibility requirements including a Class 12 pass with specified minimum marks in English and the local language. It lists over 30 divisions across Karnataka with available positions and provides details on the application process and fees. Qualified candidates must apply by September 25th.
Este documento presenta un mapa conceptual sobre la gerencia y el ciclo de vida de los proyectos. Explica que el rol principal de un profesional en proyectos es el desarrollo de proyectos basados en una excelente gestión. Se necesitan elementos como planificación, ejecución, seguimiento y control para garantizar el ciclo de vida completo de un proyecto. Los principales responsables de establecer adecuadamente el ciclo de vida son el gerente de proyectos y el equipo de gestión.
TradersCockpit is India's leading powerful Trading and Investing Analytic Tools Platform which can be deployed by Brokers to enable their users to trade intelligently
Itd 546 assgnmt 3 sisson - behaviorism for slideshareAJSisson
Behaviorism is a learning theory that views learning as a process of response to stimuli and reinforcement. It believes that rewarding desirable behaviors will strengthen those responses and lead to changes in behavior. According to behaviorism, learning is observable through changes in behavior or performance in response to environmental stimuli. The environment is seen as the most significant factor influencing learning. Memory does not play a prominent role, and forgetting is viewed as the lack of reinforcement of a behavior. Transfer occurs through generalization to similar situations. Behaviorism best explains learning involving discriminations, generalizations, associations, and chaining of behaviors.
Introduction to the Structural Approach to Cooperative LearningPAYAM SHOGHI
This document provides an introduction to cooperative learning, which involves students working in small groups to maximize their own and each other's learning. It defines cooperative learning and outlines its benefits over individual and competitive learning. The document discusses that cooperative learning must be structured, with elements like positive interdependence, individual accountability, equal participation, and simultaneous interaction. It also presents various cooperative learning structures and strategies that can be used in the classroom.
Teacher Tested Strategies for Differentiated InstructionEdutopia
Most educators agree that differentiated instruction can dramatically help students to succeed, but good differentiation needs careful planning to make sure students of all abilities are engaged and it can be a challenge when teachers are already so pressed for time.
That's why we searched the Edutopia community for tips and strategies that can help with differentiating instruction.
El documento describe los aspectos necesarios para el trabajo en equipo, incluyendo el liderazgo efectivo, la comunicación abierta y un ambiente de trabajo armonioso. Explica que el trabajo en equipo involucra a varios individuos trabajando juntos hacia un objetivo común. También identifica algunos roles clave como el coordinador, relator y especialista. Finalmente, destaca la importancia de establecer confianza, metas comunes y responsabilidad compartida entre los miembros del equipo.
This article provides a critique of the paper "Connectivism and Dimensions of Individual Experience" by Carmen Tschofen and Jenny Mackness. It summarizes the key themes of connectivism explored in their paper, such as autonomy, connectedness, diversity and openness. It also discusses some of the tensions identified between these connectivist ideals and the realities of individual experience in MOOCs. However, the critique finds the original paper difficult to understand for those unfamiliar with MOOCs and connectivism concepts due to its use of jargon and limited research scope.
Techno-Vernacular Creativity, Innovation & Learning in Underrepresented Ethni...Nettrice Gaskins, Ph.D.
The document summarizes a dissertation that examines techno-vernacular creativity (TVC) in underrepresented ethnic communities and its potential to increase interest and motivation in STEAM fields. Key points:
1) The dissertation includes a literature review on TVC, prior research, and theoretical frameworks related to culturally situated learning and design.
2) A professional workshop at Georgia Tech brought together experts to explore how TVC can engage underrepresented groups in STEAM. Workshops were also conducted with middle school students.
3) Results found that the professional workshop helped bridge disciplines and cultural differences. Student workshops found expression and art were most engaging and increased interest in STEAM topics.
4) The dissertation examines
Dokumen tersebut membahas beberapa teori psikologi pembelajaran matematika, mulai dari teori tingkah laku (behaviourism), teori kognitif, hingga teori konstruktivisme. Teori-teori tersebut dijelaskan beserta implikasinya dalam proses pembelajaran matematika, seperti penggunaan penguatan dan ganjaran, pembagian objek matematika menjadi fakta, konsep, prinsip dan keterampilan, serta peranan sosial d
Behaviorism and cognitivism are two theories of learning that differ in their perspectives. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior due to environmental experiences, while cognitivism sees it as changes in mental representations and associations from experiences. Both theories emphasize the role of environmental conditions and practice with feedback in facilitating learning, though they differ in areas like the role of errors, exposure, and the learner's level of activity.
This document discusses four major learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior and believes behaviors are shaped by environmental influences and reinforcement or punishment. Cognitivism focuses on mental processes and how information is received, organized, and stored in the mind. Constructivism holds that learners construct knowledge based on their own experiences. Humanism considers learning to be a personal act and emphasizes developing self-actualized individuals in a supportive environment. The document then provides examples of how each theory is applied in language learning, such as audiolingual method, cognitive code learning, genre-based instruction, and community language learning.
Associationism is a theory that connects learning to thought based on principles of the organism’s causal history.
It claims that pairs of thoughts become associated based on the organism’s past experience.
The frequency with which an organism has come into contact with Xs and Ys in one’s environment determines the frequency with which thoughts about Xs and thoughts about Ys will arise together in the organism’s (Hume et al).
In particular, associationism can be used as
A theory of learning (e.g., as in behaviorist theorizing),
A theory of thinking (as in Jamesian “streams of thought”),
A theory of mental structures (e.g., as concept pairs), and
A theory of the implementation of thought (e.g., connectionism).
All these theories are separable, but share a related, empiricist-friendly core.
A “pure associationist” will refer to one who holds associationist theories of learning, thinking, mental structure, and implementation.
Associationism is one of the oldest perspectives in psychology that suggests mental processes operate through the association of mental states. A major idea of associationism is that complex ideas form from the association of simpler ideas. The British empiricists like Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume used associationistic principles to explain mental activity. Hume differentiated impressions and ideas and proposed three laws of association: resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect. Associationism influenced many learning theories and continues to be relevant today.
1) Russian psychology in the late 19th century was influenced by physiological discoveries and sought to understand psychology through physiological laws. Researchers like Sechenov and Pavlov conducted pioneering work connecting physiology and psychology.
2) Behaviorism emerged in the early 20th century led by John Watson, seeking to eliminate introspection and focus only on observable behaviors. It was inspired by Ivan Pavlov's work with conditioning and sought to apply objective experimental methods.
3) Neobehaviorism recognized cognitive elements in learning, exemplified by theorists like Tolman and Hull who incorporated intervening variables like motivation and drive. Connectionist and competition models also drew from behaviorist principles like association between stimuli and responses.
Learning, Insight, and Innovation in Animals in the Context of EvolutionOleg Nekrassovski
This document summarizes the historical progress of research on learning, insight, and innovation in animals from an evolutionary context. It discusses key figures like Darwin, Romanes, Thorndike, and Pavlov and their major contributions. Darwin's works in the 1870s laid the groundwork for later studies by emphasizing associative learning and social learning in animals. Romanes collected many anecdotes about animal behavior but his evidence was unreliable. Thorndike established experimental methods to study learning processes like trial-and-error and imitation, refuting ideas of animal insight. Pavlov introduced new objective methods to study brain functions and conditioned reflexes.
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This document discusses the biological and psychological development of learners from prenatal period through old age in 3 paragraphs. It outlines the key stages of development from infancy through puberty, adolescence, and adulthood. The stages include physical, cognitive, social, and emotional milestones. The document provides context for how psychology influences education by describing the developmental processes learners undergo.
This document discusses cognitive behavioral theory and its history. It covers the following key points:
1. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) examines the connection between thoughts, emotions and behaviors. It was pioneered by psychologists like Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck in the 1950s-1960s who realized that thoughts and beliefs influence emotions.
2. Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy which found that irrational beliefs can lead to negative emotions. Beck developed cognitive therapy for depression which found that negative self-assessments can cause depression.
3. Other contributors include Albert Bandura who found cognition is shaped by observation and experience, and Ivan Pavlov who discovered classical conditioning through his dog experiments.
This document provides an overview of the history and major approaches in psychology. It discusses how psychology originated in philosophy and was influenced by thinkers like Descartes, Locke, and Hobbes. Key schools of thought discussed include structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, humanism, biopsychology, evolutionary psychology, sociocultural psychology, and the biopsychosocial model. Each school of thought proposes different causes of behavior and uses varying methods for investigation such as introspection, therapy, experimentation, and cross-cultural studies.
Assignment 2 LASA 1 Impact of StructuralismThis week you read an.docxkarenahmanny4c
Assignment 2: LASA 1: Impact of Structuralism
This week you read and learned about Titchener’s structuralism. As an approach, structuralism attempted to break down consciousness into elements of consciousness for study. It assumed that studying these parts of consciousness would lead to an understanding of the whole.
Analyze the limitations and strengths of the method of studying consciousness in parts.
Identify and discuss one of the main criticisms of structuralism.
Briefly compare and contrast structuralism and behavioralism. How did structuralism influence the creation of behaviorism?
How has structuralism impacted psychology today? As you consider this question, keep in mind the history and culture of the period in which Titchener practiced compared to your understanding of psychology today.
Write an essay that is 3-5 pages in length. Remember to support your arguments with information drawn from the
online content, the textbook, and other credible, scholarly sources to substantiate the points you are making
. Apply APA standards for writing and citations to your work.
**Hint:
a useful article for comparing and contrasting structuralism with behavioralism is found in the AUO library and referenced in your textbook:
Rilling, M. (2000). How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson’s behaviors. The
American Journal of Psychology, 113
(2), 275-301. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/224842367/fulltext/12E26E325F56462A087/8?accountid=34899
The paper should be
double-spaced 12-point
typescript, Times Roman font, with
1-inch margins
all around, and free from grammatical errors. Your paper needs to include a cover page, abstract, and reference list in APA format.
Submit your response to the
M3: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Week 3, Day 7
. Name your assignment as follows:
LastName_FirstInitial_PSY450_M3A2.doc
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed limitations and strengths of structuralism.
32
Identified and discussed one main criticism of structuralism.
32
Compared and contrasted structuralism with behavioralism.
32
Explained how structuralism influenced the development of behavioralism.
32
Described the impact of structuralism on psychology today, with consideration of the culture of the time period in which Titchener practiced.
28
Style (4 points): Tone, audience, and word choice
Organization (12 points): Introduction, transitions, and conclusion
Usage and Mechanics (12 points): Grammar, spelling, and sentence structure
APA Elements (16 points): In text citations and references, paraphrasing, and appropriate use of quotations and other elements of style
44
Total:
200
This is the article.
How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson's behaviorism
Rilling, Mark
.
The American Journal of Psychology
113.2
(Summer 2000): 275-301.
Full text
Full text - PDF
Abstract/Details
Abs.
The document provides an overview of learning theories categorized into three groups: behaviorist, cognitive-information processing, and cognitive-constructivist. It summarizes the key components of the cognitive-information processing view, which conceives learning as involving information input, processing, storage and output similar to a computer. The main components discussed are sensory memory, selective attention, pattern recognition, short-term memory, rehearsal/chunking, and encoding, with explanations of their roles in transferring information from the senses to long-term memory storage. The purpose of the document is to help readers develop an educational philosophy statement.
The psychological foundation of curriculum aims to evaluate what is taught in the classroom based on theories of human learning processes. It seeks to answer how curriculum should be organized to enhance learning. Major learning theories discussed that inform this foundation include behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism.
All things should be looked at from the perspective of behaviour.
And it doesn’t matter what is going on in the mind, it just matters what the behaviour
So there is no difference in the behaviourist mind between external behaviour and internal thoughts.
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Lee Thorndike
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Before he invented behaviorism, John B. Watson considered learning.docxAASTHA76
Before he invented behaviorism, John B. Watson considered learning one of the most important topics in psychology. Watson conducted excellent empirical research on animal learning. He developed behaviorism in part to promote research and elevate the status of learning in psychology. Watson was much less successful in the adequacy and originality of the mechanisms he proposed to explain learning. By assimilating the method of classical conditioning and adopting Pavlov's theory of stimulus substitution, Watson linked behaviorism with a new method that could compete with both Titchener's method of introspection and Freud's methods of psychoanalysis. Watson's interest in explaining psychopathology led to the discovery of conditioned emotional responses and a behavioristic explanation for the learning of phobic behavior. Watson established learning as a central topic for basic research and application in American psychology.
Learning in animals is probably the most important topic in the whole study of behavior (Watson, 1914, p. 45).
No experimenter has yet set his experimental problems in such a way as to construct from his data a guiding theory of habit formation (Watson, 1925, p. 25).
In 1930, when he revised Behaviorism for the last time, Watson expressed satisfaction that behaviorism was strongly entrenched as a point of view in American psychology. He took the occasion to repeat a major theme of his career, the contrast between the old psychology of James's and Titchener's introspection and what he called the new psychology of behaviorism. From his point of view, Watson had achieved great success in his primary goal of changing the subject matter of psychology from consciousness to behavior. After telling his readers that consciousness was the subject matter of the old psychology, Watson repeated the main point of his manifesto on behaviorism (Watson, 1913a), that "behaviorism, on the contrary, holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being" (1930, p. 2).
What historical factors led Watson to propose a change in the subject matter of psychology from consciousness to behavior? Although many factors, both in American culture at large and in American psychology, contributed to the origins of behaviorism (Burnham, 1968; Mills, 1998; O'Donnell, 1985), the challenge of explaining learning was central to the origins and subsequent development of John B. Watson's behaviorism. By 1930 Watson could also take satisfaction that not only behaviorism, but also the topic of learning, was strongly entrenched in American psychology.
For Watson, behaviorism represented much more than a change in the subject matter of psychology. Many topics in psychology could be approached objectively. Indeed, in one of the first of a genre of critiques of behaviorism, Titchener (1914, p. 5) pointed out that calls for objective psychology were common in the history of psychology, so "Watson's behaviorism is neither so revolutionary ...
- Albert Bandura was a Canadian-American psychologist who was born in 1925 in Alberta, Canada. He is known for his work on social learning theory and social cognitive theory.
- One of Bandura's most famous experiments was the Bobo doll experiment in 1961, which demonstrated that children's aggressive behavior could be influenced or learned through observation.
- Bandura expanded social learning theory into social cognitive theory, which posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment.
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1. Instructional Design
&
Learning Theory
Brenda Mergel
Graduate Student
Educational Communications and Technology
University of Saskatchewan
May, 1998
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Introduction:
To students of instructional design the introduction and subsequent "sorting out" of the
various learning theories and associated instructional design strategies can be somewhat
confusing. It was out of this feeling of cognitive dissonance that this site was born.
Why does it seem so difficult to differentiate between three basic theories of learning?
Why do the names of theorists appear connected to more than one theory? Why do the
terms and strategies of each theory overlap?
The need for answers to these questions sparked my investigation into the available
literature on learning theories and their implications for instructional design. I found
many articles and internet sites that dealt with learning theory and ID, in fact, it was
difficult to know when and where to draw the line. When I stopped finding new
information, and the articles were reaffirming what I had already read, I began to write.
The writing process was a learning experience for me and now that I have finished, I
want to start over and make it even better, because I know more now than I did when I
began. Every time I reread an article, there were ideas and lists that I would wish to add
to my writing. Perhaps in further development of this site I will change and refine my
presentation.
Reading about the development of learning theories and their connection to
instructional design evoked, for me, many parallels with the development of other
theories in sciences. I have included some of those thoughts as asides within the main
body of text.
Besides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as
connoisseurship, semiotics, and contextualism, but I decided that a clear understanding
of the basic learning theories would be best. The main sections of this site are as
2. follows:
What are Theories and Models?
The Basics of the Learning Theories
The Basics of Behaviorism
The Basics of Cognitivism
The Basics of Constructivism
The History of Learning Theories in Instructional Design
Behaviorism and Instructional Design
Cognitivism and Instructional Design
Constructivism and Instructional Design
Comparing The Development of Learning Theories to the Development of the
Atomic Theory
Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional Design
Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses
Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design?
Conclusion
References and Bibliography
What are Theories and Models?
What is a theory?
A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time.
A theory explains and predicts behavior.
A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.
A theory may be modified.
Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but
sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later
disproved.
(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
What is a model?
A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we cannot
see or experience directly.
(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism - The
Basics
Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new
behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior
3. are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind.
Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the
world, through individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing
the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations.
(Schuman, 1996)
The Basics of Behaviorism
Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay "Memory"
focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder.
Other philosophers that followed Aristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740),
Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).
The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be
observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a "black box" in the
sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the
possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the
development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
For most people, the name "Pavlov" rings a bell (pun intended). The Russian physiologist
is best known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's
most famous experiment involved food, a dog and a bell.
Pavlov's Experiment
Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no response from the dog. Placing
food in front of the dog initiated salivation.
During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented
with food.
After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone produced salivation
(Dembo, 1994).
Stimulus and Response Items of Pavlov's Experiment
4. Food Unconditioned Stimulus
Salivation
Unconditioned Response (natural, not
learned)
Bell Conditioned Stimulus
Salivation Conditioned Response (to bell)
Other Observations Made by Pavlov
Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the
bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually
cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an
elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination: The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells
(stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and
which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the
bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at
the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of
the light without the sound of the bell.
(What was the name of that dog??)
Thorndike (1874 - 1949)
Edward Thorndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human
psychology. He set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems
by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "Anything that exists,
exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Johcich, as cited in Rizo, 1991). His
theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between
stimulus and response.
The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and
5. practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise
also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does
not necessarily enhance performance.
The "law of readiness" : because of the structure of the nervous system, certain
conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than
others.
Thorndike's laws were based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. He believed that a
neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when the response
was positive. Learning takes place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior
(Saettler, 1990).
Watson (1878 - 1958)
John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Like
Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in
the study of human behavior.
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions
of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning.
Watson's Experiment
Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child
(Albert) and a white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a
sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the
loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was
generalized to other small animals. Watson then "extinguished" the fear by presenting
the rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned
fear was more powerful and permanent than it really was. (Harris, 1979; Samelson,
1980, in Brophy, 1990)
Certainly Watson's research methods would be questioned today; however, his work did
demonstrate the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to
certain stimuli. This may explain certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people
develop.
(Watson is credited with coining the term "behaviorism")
Skinner (1904 - 1990)
Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the
possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two , is
about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote,Science and
6. Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant
conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion,
economics and education (Dembo, 1994).
Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he
studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).
Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Skinner's Operant Conditioning Mechanisms
Positive Reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be
repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.)
Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable
situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of
good term work.)
Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not reinforced are to likely
to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.)
Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be
suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing
late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.)
(Good & Brophy, 1990)
Skinner and Behavioral Shaping
If placed in a cage an animal may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever
will produce food. To accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the
7. behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the
food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the
direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever,
and finally for pawing the lever.
Behavioral chaining occurs when a succession of steps need to be learned. The animal
would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules
Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be
100%; in fact it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to
as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.
Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of
time has passed since the last reinforcement.
Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of
time that must pass between reinforcement varies.
Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may
recur.
Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of correct repetitions of the correct
response for reinforcement varies.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more
persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement
will come although they know that they will eventually succeed.
(Have you checked your Lottery tickets lately?)
The Basics of Cognitivism
As early as the 1920's people began to find limitations in the behaviorist approach to
understanding learning. Edward Tolman found that rats used in an experiment appeared
to have a mental map of the maze he was using. When he closed off a certain portion of
the maze, the rats did not bother to try a certain path because they "knew" that it led to
the blocked path. Visually, the rats could not see that the path would result in failure,
yet they chose to take a longer route that they knew would be successful (Operant
Conditioning [On-line]).
Behaviorists were unable to explain certain social behaviors. For example, children do
not imitate all behavior that has been reinforced. Furthermore, they may model new
behavior days or weeks after their first initial observation without having been reinforced
for the behavior. Because of these observations, Bandura and Walters departed from the
traditional operant conditioning explanation that the child must perform and receive
reinforcement before being able to learn. They stated in their 1963 book, Social Learning
8. and Personality Development, that an individual could model behavior by observing the
behavior of another person. This theory lead to Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
(Dembo, 1994).
What is Cognitivism?
"Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations
established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the
importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing
feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator.
However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive
theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the
cognitive structures through which humans process and store
information." (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187).
As with behaviorism, cognitive psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greeks,
Plato and Aristotle. The cognitive revolution became evident in American psychology
during the 1950's (Saettler, 1990). One of the major players in the development of
cognitivism is Jean Piaget, who developed the major aspects of his theory as early as the
1920's. Piaget's ideas did not impact North America until the 1960's after Miller and
Bruner founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive studies.
Key Concepts of Cognitive Theory
Schema - An internal knowledge structure. New information is compared to
existing cognitive structures called "schema". Schema may be combined, extended
or altered to accommodate new information.
Three-Stage Information Processing Model - input first enters a sensory register,
then is processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term
memory for storage and retrieval.
Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less than a
second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement.
Much of the information never reaches short term memory but all
information is monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary.
Short-Term Memory (STM) - sensory input that is important or interesting
is transferred from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained
here for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term
memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM capacity can be
increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts.
Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM for
long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials
are "forced" into LTM by rote memorization and over learning. Deeper levels
of processing such as generating linkages between old and new information
are much better for successful retention of material.
Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember.
(Cofer, 1971, in Good and Brophy, 1990) If a learner links relatively meaningless
information with prior schema it will be easier to retain. (Wittrock, Marks, &
Doctorow, 1975, in Good and Brophy, 1990)
Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end
of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly
different.
9. Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is
distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material
with many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass
practice.
Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material.
Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of
new material.
Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it
is easier to remember.
Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a low-level sensory
analysis of their physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their
meaning. (Craik and Lockhart, 1972, in Good and Brophy, 1990) The more deeply
a word is process the easier it will be to remember.
State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will
be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.
Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to organize
relatively meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts.
For example, the notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the rhyme: Every
Good Boy Deserves Fruit.
Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it may be more
difficult for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it
may also be affected by their prior schema.
Advance Organizers - Ausebels advance organizers prepare the learner for the
material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines of the material, but
are material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.
The Basics of Constructivism
Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy,
1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least
interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is
a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to
interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the
physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991).
If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society
communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking
Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments:
"Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that
we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of
the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy."
"A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that
contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that
we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are
perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way."
"Constructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of
social negotiation..."
10. If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past,
the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner,
Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound
influence was Jean Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield
(Smorgansbord, 1997).
Realistic vs. Radical Construction
Realistic constructivism - cognition is the process by which learners eventually
construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in
the environment.
Radical constructivism - cognition serves to organize the learners experiential world
rather than to discover ontological reality
(Cobb, 1996, in Smorgansbord, 1997).
The Assumptions of Constructivism - Merrill
knowledge is constructed from experience
learning is a personal interpretation of the world
learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of
experience
conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of
multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through
collaborative learning
learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with
the task and not a separate activity
(Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997)
11. It Boggles the Mind!
If you are reading about learning theories, you may notice that it is difficult to pin
down what theory a certain theorist belongs to. This can confuse you, since, just
as you think you have it cased, a name you originally thought was in the
behavioral category shows up in a constructivism article.
This problem is often the result of theorists and their ideas evolving over time and
changes they make to their original ideas. Davidson includes the follswing example
in an article she wrote:
"Considered by most to be representative of [a] behaviourist learning paradigm,
Gagne's theory of learning and events of instruction have evolved progressively to
approach a more cognitive theory. His discussion of relating present information
and past knowledge (event #3) and the inclusion of learning transfer (event#9) are
indicative of this shift toward constructivism." (Davidson, 1998)
Okay? Okay. :-)
Comparing The Development of Learning Theories to
the Development of the Atomic Theory
Atomic Theory
Since the beginning of history, people have theorized about the nature of matter. The
ancient Greeks thought that matter was composed of fire, water, earth and air. Another
view, the continuous theory, was that matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller
and smaller pieces without change. The Greek philosophers, Democritis and Lucippus,
came up with the idea that matter made up of particles so small that they cannot be
12. This theory was referred to as the orbital model and the quantum-mechanical
model.
(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
Learning Theory
Given that we will most likely never "see" an atom, we will never "see" learning either.
Therefore our learning models are mental pictures that enable us to understand that
which we will never see. Does the development of learning theory follow a similar pattern
as the atomic theory?
It seems that learning theories, like the study of matter can be traced back to the
ancient Greeks. In the 18th century, with the onset of scientific inquiry, people began in
ernest to study and develop models of learning. The behaviorist learning theory centered
around that which was observable, not considering that there was anything occurring
inside the mind. Behaviorism can be compared to Dalton's atom, which was simply a
particle. Using overt behavior as a starting point, people began to realize that there is
something happening inside the organism that should be considered, since it seemed to
affect the overt behavior. Similarly, in physical science, people such as Crookes,
Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr realized that there was something occurring within the
atom causing its behavior. Thus the cognitive model of learning was born. Soon,
however, theorists realized that the "atom" is not stable, it is not so "cut and dried".
Enter the constructivist learning theory which tells us that each organism is constantly
in flux, and although the old models work to a certain degree, other factors most also be
considered. Could the constructivist approach be considered to be the quantum theory of
learning?
The quantum theory builds upon the previous atomic theories. Constructivism builds
13. upon behaviorism and cognitivism in the sense that it accepts multiple perspectives and
maintains that learning is a personal interpretation of the world. I believe that
behavioral strategies can be part of a constructivist learning situation, if that learner
choses and finds that type of learning suitable to their experiences and learning style.
Cognitive approaches have a place in constructivism also, since constructivism
recognises the concept of schema and building upon prior knowledge and experience.
Perhaps the greatest difference is that of evaluation. In behaviorism and cognitivism,
evaluation is based on meeting specific objectives, whereas in constructivism, evaluation
is much more subjective. Of course, what if I, as a learner, negotiate my evaluation and
wish to include objective evaluation? Then isn't behavioral and cognitive strategy a part
of constructivism?
Perhaps the learning theory used depends upon the learning situation, just as the
atomic theory used, depends upon the learning situation. The bohr atom is often used to
introduce the concept of protons, neutrons and electrons to grade school students.
Perhaps behaviorism is suitable to certain basic learning situations, whereas "quantum"
constructivism is better suited to advanced learning situations.
A Biological Analogy to Learning Theory Classification
The classification of learning theories is somewhat analogous to the classification
system designed by biologists to sort out living organisms. Like any attempt to
define categories, to establish criteria, the world does not fit the scheme in all
cases. Originally there was a plant kingdom and an animal kingdom, but
eventually organisms that contained cholophyll and were mobile needed to be
classified. The protist kingdom was established. The exact criteria for protists are
still not established, but it is a classification that gives us a place for all of the
organisms that don't fit neatly into either the plant or animal kingdoms.
To extend the analogy, biologists continued to modify the classification system as
know knowledge and insights into existing knowledge were discovered. The advent
of new technology such as the electron microscope enabled the addition of the
monera kingdom. Recently, the distinctive features of fungi have brought about a
proposal for a fifth kingdom, fungi. This development and adjustment of the
taxonomy remins one of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism,
postmodernism, contextualism, semiotics...
14. The History of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and
Constructivism in Instructional Design
Behaviorism and Instructional Design
** This section on behaviorism is largely a synopsis of information from Paul Saettler's
book, The History of American Educational Technology , (1990).
In Paul Saettler's book The History of American Educational Technology , he states that
behaviorism did not have an impact on educational technology until the 1960s, which
was the time that behaviorism actually began to decrease in popularity in American
psychology. Saettler identified six areas that demonstrate the impact of behaviorism on
Educational Technology in America: the behavioral objectives movement; the teaching
machine phase; the programmed instruction movement; individualized instructional
approaches, computer-assisted learning and the systems approach to instruction.
Behavioral Objectives Movement:
A behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal
15. Example: After having completed the unit the student will be able to answer correctly
90% of the questions on the posttest.
A - Audience - the student
B - Behavior - answer correctly
C - Condition - after having completed the unit, on a post test
D - Degree - 90% correct
To develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis
into specific measurable tasks. The learning success may be measured by tests developed
to measure each objective.
The advent of behavioral objectives can be traced back to the Elder Sophists of ancient
Greece, Cicero, Herbart and Spencer, but Franklin Bobbitt developed the modern concept
of behavioral objectives in the early 1900s (Saettler, 1990).
Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviors
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - In 1956 Bloom and his colleagues began
development of a taxonomy in the cognitive, attitudinal (affective) and
psychomotor domains. Many people are familiar with Bloom's Cognitive
taxonomy:
knowledge
comprehension
application
analysis
synthesis
evaluation
Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning - Robert Gagne developed his taxonomy of
learning in 1972. Gagne's taxonomy was comprised of five categories:
verbal information
intellectual skill
cognitive strategy
attitude
motor skill
Mastery Learning
Mastery learning was originally developed by Morrison in the 1930s. His formula for
mastery was "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the
point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990). Mastery learning assumes
that all students can master the materials presented in the lesson. Bloom further
developed Morrison's plan, but mastery learning is more effective for the lower levels of
learning on Bloom's taxonomy, and not appropriate for higher level learning (Saettler,
1990).
Military and Industrial Approach
16. For military and industrial training, "behavioral objectives were written descriptions of
specific, terminal behaviors that were manifested in terms of observable, measurable
behavior." (Saettler, 1990) Robert Mager wrote Preparing Instructional Objectives, in 1962
which prompted interest and use of behavioral objectives among educators. Gagne and
Briggs who also had backgrounds in military and industrial psychology developed a set of
instructions for writing objectives that is based on Mager's work.
Gagne's and Brigg's Model
Action
Object
Situation
Tools and Constraints
Capability to be Learned
By the late 1960's most teachers were writing and using behavioral objectives. There
were, of course, people who questioned the breaking down of subject material into small
parts, believing that it would lead away from an understanding of the "whole" (Saettler,
1990).
Accountability Movement
A movement known as scientific management of industry arose in the early 1900s in
response to political and economic factors of that time. Franklin Bobbitt proposed
utilization of this system in education stressing that the standards and direction of
education should stem from the consumer - society. Bobbitt's ideas exemplified the idea
of accountability, competency-based education and performance-based education, which
because of similar economic and political factors, experienced a revival in America
during the late 1960s and 1970s (Saettler, 1990).
Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction
Movement
Although the elder Sophists, Comenius, Herbart and Montessori used the concept of
programmed instruction in their repertoire, B.F. Skinner is the most current and
probably best known advocate of teaching machines and programmed learning.
Contributors to this movement include the following:
Pressey - introduced a multiple-choice machine at the 1925 American
Psychological Association meeting.
Peterson - a former student of Pressey's who developed "chemosheets" in which
the learner checked their answers with a chemical-dipped swab.
W.W.II - devises called "phase checks", constructed in the 1940s and 1950s,
taught and tested such skills and dissassembly-assembly of equipment.
Crowder - designed a branched style of programming for the US Air force in the
1950s to train troubleshooters to find malfunctions in electronic equipment.
Skinner - based on operant conditioning Skinner's teaching machine required the
learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the
correctness of the response. Skinner demonstrated his machine in 1954.
17. (Saettler, 1990)
Early Use of Programmed Instruction
After experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1920s and 1930s, B. F. Skinner
and J.G. Holland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at
Harvard in the late 1950s. Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and
secondary schools around the same time. Much of the programmed instruction in
American schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more
often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (Saettler, 1990).
Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of
hardware rather than course content. Concerned developers moved away from hardware
development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on
learning theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of
the 1960s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (Saettler, 1990).
Individualized Approaches to Instruction
Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began
in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed
Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided
Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990).
Keller Plan (1963)
Developed by F.S. Keller, a colleague of Skinner, the Keller plan was used for
university college classes.
Main features of Keller Plan
individually paced.
mastery learning.
lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring,
personal-social aspect of educational process.
(Saettler, 1990)
Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)
Developed by Learning Research and Development Center of the University of
Pitsburgh.
Lasted into the 1970s when it lost funding and its use dwindled
Main features of IPI:
prepared units.
behavioral objectives.
planned instructional sequences.
used for reading, math and science.
included pretest and posttest for each unit.
materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral
18. objectives.
(Saettler, 1990)
Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)
Headed by Jon C. Flanagan, PLAN was developed under sponsorship of American
Institutes for Research (AIR), Westinghouse Learning Corporation and fourteen
U.S. School districts.
Abandoned in late 1970s because of upgrading costs
Main features of PLAN
schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioral objectives.
each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were
made up of approximately. five objectives.
mastery learning.
remedial learning plus retesting.
(Saettler, 1990)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Computer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the
1950s. Early work was done by IBM and such people as Gordon Pask, and O.M. Moore,
but CAI grew rapidly in the 1960s when federal funding for research and development in
education and industrial laboratories was implemented. The U.S. government wanted to
determine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developed
two competing companies, (Control Data Corporation and Mitre Corporation) who came
up with the PLATO and TICCIT projects. Despite money and research, by the mid
seventies it was apparent that CAI was not going to be the success that people had
believed. Some of the reasons are:
CAI had been oversold and could not deliver.
lack of support from certain sectors.
technical problems in implementation.
lack of quality software.
high cost.
Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the
program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of instruction was
implemented although TICCIT did allow the learner to determine the sequence of
instruction or to skip certain topics.
(Saettler, 1990)
Systems Approach to Instruction
The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language
laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and
the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to
19. computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the
development of instruction. Rooted in the military and business world, the systems
approach involved setting goals and objectives, analyzing resources, devising a plan of
action and continuous evaluation/modification of the program. (Saettler, 1990)
Cognitivism and Instructional Design
Although cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and began to take over as the
dominant theory of learning, it wasn't until the late 1970s that cognitive science began
to have its influence on instructional design. Cognitive science began a shift from
behavioristic practices which emphasised external behavior, to a concern with the
internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting
effective learning. The design models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition
were not simply tossed out, but instead the "task analysis" and "learner analysis" parts
of the models were embellished. The new models addressed component processes of
learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval
as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information
(Saettler, 1990). Because Cognitivism and Behaviorism are both governed by an objective
view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something, the transition
from behavioral instructional design principles to those of a cognitive style was not
entirely difficult. The goal of instruction remained the communication or transfer of
knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible (Bednar et al., in
Anglin, 1995). For example, the breaking down of a task into small steps works for a
behaviorist who is trying to find the most efficient and fail proof method of shaping a
20. learner's behavior. The cognitive scientist would analyze a task, break it down into
smaller steps or chunks and use that information to develop instruction that moves
from simple to complex building on prior schema.
The influence of cognitive science in instructional design is evidenced by the use of
advance organizers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts and
the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex.
Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction
Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe
humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the
possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e.. artificial
intelligence.
Artificial intelligence involve the computer working to supply appropriate responses to
student input from the computer's data base. A trouble-shooting programs is one
example of these programs. Below is a list of some programs and their intended use:
SCHOLAR - teaches facts about South American geography in a Socratic method
PUFF - diagnoses medical patients for possible pulmonary disorders
MYCIN - diagnoses blood infections and prescribes possible treatment
DENDRAL - enables a chemist to make an accurate guess about the molecular
structure of an unknown compound
META-DENDRAL - makes up its own molecular fragmentation rules in an
attempt to explain sets of basic data
GUIDION - a derivative of the MYCIN program that gave a student information
about a case and compared their diagnosis with what MYCIN would suggest
SOPIE - helps engineers troubleshoot electronic equipment problems
BUGGY - allows teachers to diagnose causes for student mathematical errors
LOGO - designed to help children learn to program a computer
Davis' math programs for the PLATO system - to encourage mathematical
development through discovery
(Saettler, 1990)
Constructivism and Instructional Design
The shift of instructional design from behaviorism to cognitivism was not as dramatic as
the move into constructivism appears to be, since behaviorism and cognitivism are both
objective in nature. Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of analyzing
a task and breaking it down into manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and
measuring performance based on those objectives. Constructivism, on the other hand,
promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of
learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner.
While behaviorism and constructivism are very different theoretical perspectives,
cognitivism shares some similarities with constructivism. An example of their
21. compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the
mind to that of a computer. Consider the following statement by Perkins:
"...information processing models have spawned the computer model of the mind
as an information processor. Constructivism has added that this information
processor must be seen as not just shuffling data, but wielding it flexibly during
learning -- making hypotheses, testing tentative interpretations, and so on."
(Perkins, 1991, p.21 in Schwier, 1998 ).
Other examples of the link between cognitive theory and constructivism are:
schema theory (Spiro, et al, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)
connectionism (Bereiter, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)
hypermedia (Tolhurst, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)
multimedia (Dede, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)
Despite these similarities between cognitivism and constructivism, the objective side of
cognitivism supported the use of models to be used in the systems approach of
instructional design. Constructivism is not compatible with the present systems
approach to instructional design, as Jonassen points out :
"The conundrum that constructivism poses for instructional designers, however,
is that if each individual is responsible for knowledge construction, how can we
as designers determine and insure a common set of outcomes for leaning, as we
have been taught to do?" (Jonasson, [On-line])
In the same article, Jonassen (Jonasson, [On-line]) lists the following implications of
constructivism for instructional design:
"...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments
which:
Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction
by by representing the natural complexity of the world
Present authentic tasks - contextualize
Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined
instructional sequences
Foster reflective practice
Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction
Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not
competition among learners for recognition
"Although we believe that constructivism is not a prescriptive theory of
instruction, it should be possible to provide more explicit guidelines on how to
design learning environments that foster constructivist learning"
Jonassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist,
(behavioral and cognitive), instructional design is that objective design has a
predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a pre-determined
concept of reality into the learner's mind, while constructivism maintains that because
22. learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control,
learning. With this in mind, Jonassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist
approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning
environments.
"...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing
environments which support the construction of knowledge, which ..."
Is Based on Internal Negotiation
a process of articulating mental models, using those models to explain,
predict, and infer, and reflecting on their utility (Piaget's accommodation,
Norman and Rumelhart's tuning and restructuring.)
Is Based on Social Negotiation
a process of sharing a reality with others using the same or similar
processes to those used in internal negotiation
Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New
Environments
processes that are regulated by each individual's intentions, needs, and/or
expectations
Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for
Learning and Using the Constructed Knowledge
should be supported by case-based problems which have been derived from
and situated in the real world with all of its uncertainty and complexity
and based on authentic realife practice
Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving
Methods
problems in one context are different from problems in other contexts
Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers
Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher
the teacher is more of a coach or mentor than a purveyor of knowledge
Provides an Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate an Internal Negotiation Necessary for
Building Mental Models
(Jonasson, [On-line])
The technological advances of the 1980s and 1990s have enabled designers to move
toward a more
constructivist approach to design of instruction. One of the most useful tools for the
constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched
design rather than a linear format of instruction. Hyperlinks allow for learner control
which is crucial to constructivist learning; however, there is some concerns over the
novice learner becoming "lost" in a sea of hypermedia. To address this concern, Jonassen
and McAlleese (Jonnassen & McAlleese, [On-line]) note that each phase of knowledge
acquisition requires different types of learning and that initial knowledge acquisition is
perhaps best served by classical instruction with predetermined learning outcomes,
sequenced instructional interaction and criterion-referenced evaluation while the more
advanced second phase of knowledge acquisition is more suited to a constructivist
environment.
If a novice learner is unable to establish an "anchor" in a hypermedia environment they
23. may wander aimlessly through hypermedia becoming completely disoriented. Reigeluth
and Chung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In
this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some
instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to
return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". (Davidson, 1998)
Most literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let
loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective
and constructive) instruction/learning design be implemented. Davidson's (1998) article,
suggesting a criteria for hypermedia learning based on an "exploration of relevant
learning theories", is an example of this method.
Having noted the eclectic nature of instructional design, it is only fair to point out that
not all theorists advocate a "mix and match" strategy for instructional design. Bednar,
Cunningham, Duffy and Perry wrote an article that challenges the eclectic nature if
instructional systems design by pointing out that "...abstracting concepts and strategies
from the theoretical position that spawned then strips them of their meaning." They
question objectivist epistemology completely and have adopted what they consider a
constructivist approach to instructional design. In the article they compare the
traditional approaches of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to that of a constructivist
approach. (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1995)
Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional
Design
What is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of
instructional design? Is one approach more easily achieved than another? To address
this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the dominant theory in instructional
design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by behaviorists
are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. For example, behaviorists assess
learners to determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the
learner to determine their predisposition to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). With this
in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from a behaviorist/cognitivist
approach as opposed to a constructivist approach.
When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the
situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are
developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has
been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to
know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is
somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and
remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".
To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product
that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not
prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more
subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the
24. process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of
mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on
notes, early drafts, final products and journals. (Assessment [On-line])
Because of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a
designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional
design. That is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than
constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive
to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. Perhaps there is some
truth in the statement that "Constructivism is a 'learning theory', more than a 'teaching
approach'." (Wilkinson, 1995)
Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses
What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches
to instructional design?
Behaviorism
Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the
correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who
has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an
anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.
Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the
cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy
planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Cognitivism
Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best
way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on
one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer.
Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency.
- Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be
important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
Constructivism
Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action
may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person
decided to report their taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very
"constructive" approaches used within the system we have.
Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better
able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better
25. apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.
(Schuman, 1996)
Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional
Design?
Why bother with Theory at all?
A solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of ISD
professionals because it permeates all dimensions of ISD (Shiffman, 1995). Depending
on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. The instructional
designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to
optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. Recipes contained in ID
theories may have value for novice designers (Wilson, 1997), who lack the experience and
expertise of veteran designers. Theories are useful because they open our eyes to other
possibilities and ways of seeing the world. Whether we realize it or not, the best design
decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories.
An Eclectic Approach to Theory in Instructional Design
The function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. Trying
to tie Instructional Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world.
What we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the
real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in practice, (the real
world). From a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use
it.
What Works and How Can We Use It?
Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism - what works where and how do we knit
everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional
design? First of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify
it to accommodate constructivist values. We must allow circumstances surrounding the
learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is
necessary to realize that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions,
whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (Schwier, 1995)
Jonnassen in Manifesto for a Constructive Approach to Technology in Higher Education
([On-line]) identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he
believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches.
1. Introductory Learning - learners have very little directly transferable
prior knowledge about a skill or content area. They are at the initial stages
of schema assembly and integration. At this stage classical instructional
design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained,
sequential and criterion-referenced. The learner can develop some anchors
for further exploration.
26. 2. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition - follows introductory knowledge and
precedes expert knowledge. At this point constructivist approaches may be
introduced.
3. Expertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the
learner is able to make intelligent decisions within the learning
environment. A constructivist approach would work well in this case.
Having pointed out the different levels of learning, Jonassen stresses that it is still
important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology.
Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory which organizes instruction in increasing order of
complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the
eclectic approach to instructional design, since the learner can be introduced to the
main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed study that is
meaningful to them and their particular context.
After having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism,
Ertmer and Newby (1993) feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners
may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. They do
not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and
content addressed depend on the level of the learners. Similar to Jonassen, they match
learning theories with the content to be learned:
... a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a
profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem
-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations
(knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing
with
ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)
Behavioral
... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations,
discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies most
frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response,
contiguity
of feedback/reinforcement).
Cognitive
Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule or
procedural executions) are primarily associated with strategies
having a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogical
reasoning, algorithmic problem solving).
Constructive
Tasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving,
personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently
est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g.,
situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation.
27. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)
Ertmer and Newby (1993) believe that the strategies promoted by different learning
theories overlap (the same strategy for a different reason) and that learning theory
strategies are concentrated along different points of a continuum depending of the focus
of the learning theory - the level of cognitive processing required.
Ertmer and Newby's suggestion that theoretical strategies can complement the learner's
level of task knowledge, allows the designer to make the best use of all available
practical applications of the different learning theories. With this approach the designer
is able to draw from a large number of strategies to meet a variety of learning situations.
Conclusion
Upon completion of this site on learning theories and instructional design, I have not
only accomplished my objective, but gained insight and appreciation for the different
learning theories and their possible application to instructional design.
It was interesting for me to find that I am not alone in my perspective regarding learning
28. theories and instructional design. There is a place for each theory within the practice of
instructional design, depending upon the situation and environment. I especially favor
the idea of using an objective approach to provide the learner with an "anchor" before
they set sail on the open seas of knowledge. A basic understanding of the material in
question provides the learner with a guiding compass for further travel.
Another consideration is the distinction between "training" and "education". In today's
competitive business world, the instructional designer may be required to establish and
meet the objectives of that business. On the other hand, in a school setting, the
designer may be challenged to provide material that fosters an individual to find
divergent approaches to problem solving. Whichever situation the instructional designer
finds themselves in, they will require a thorough understanding of learning theories to
enable them to provide the appropriate learning environment.
Finally, though Instructional Design may have a behaviorist tradition, new insights to
the learning process continue to replace, change and alter the process. Advancements in
technology make branched constructivist approaches to learning possible. Whether
designing for training or education, the instructional designer's toolbox contains an ever
changing and increasing number of theoretical applications and physical possibilities.
With intelligent application of learning theory strategies and technology, the modern
designer will find solutions to the learning requirements of the 21st century.
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