Module 3 Curriculum Design and Development.pptx

Prof.Omprakash H M, Professor
College of Education and
Behavioral Sciences
Department of Curriculum and
Instructons
Bule Hora University, Adola,
Ethiopia

Module 3: Curriculum Design and
Development
Unit one: Introduction to Curriculum
1.1 The Concept and Nature of Curriculum
1.2 Scope of Curriculum
1.3 Foundation of Curriculum
1.4 Historical overview of Curriculum
1.5 Approaches to Curriculum and Curriculum Theorizing

1.1 The Concept and Nature of Curriculum
Introduction:
The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the
changes that occur in society. In its narrow sense,
curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to
be taught in school. In a broader sense, it refers to the
total learning experiences of individuals not only in
schools but in society as well.
Curriculum from Different Points of View:
There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the
concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as
fragmentary, elusive and confusing. The definitions are
influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as
cultural experiences

But I don’t
work in a
classroom,
what does
curriculum
have to do
with me?

Definition of curriculum and its origin
Before defining the what of the curriculum, first let see the
origin of the word curriculum.
According to the Bandi and Wales (2005), the word
curriculum was originated from the Latin word called
CURRERE, which means the race course or race to be run or
series of obstacles or hurdles (subject) to be passed.
 In a broader sense it is the race course to be covered by
the children in the school in run to wards the end points
(goals), i.e., certificate, diploma, and degree masters or PhD.
A race course/ground - a relatively standardized ground to
be covered by runners toward the finish line
The school curriculum is thus, a race to be run, a series of
obstacles or hurdles (subjects) to be passed

Definition of curriculum:
It is not an easy task to define what a curriculum is.
Different scholars define it differently based on their
experiences and their philosophical assumptions.
There is no one universally agreed definition of curriculum
There are a controversy among the scholars, educationalists and
curricularists as to the definitions of the curriculum. Different
scholars give different meaning for the curriculum.
Scholars have different vies as to the task of the schools, for
example:
1. The subject center curriculum experts( Bestor, learners,
and kloversy): The function of the school is for the
promotion of the intellectual capacity of the learners.
For them curriculum is the collection of the subject matter
that promote the intellectual capacity of the learners.

2. The experience centered curriculum experts
( Count and Hopkins): The task of school is for the
preparation of children for the purpose of building the new
social order.
For them curriculum is the every thing that transpire in
the process of planning, teaching and learning in the
educational institutions.
3. Child-centered curriculum experts (Kilpatrick, Dewy and
Wilson);The purpose of the school is to give emphasis for the
taught, beliefs, hopes, feelings and wishes of the children.

Accordingly the scholars agree upon the
definition of the curriculum by categorizing
them under narrow senses and broader senses(
angles)
In a narrow sense curriculum is :
Outline of the course of the study
Written document in the educational
institute( policy, strategies, rules, regulations)
for achieving the desired goal
Plan for action
Plan for learning ( Hild Taba)
A set of materials
Short lists of the intended learning outcomes

Nature of Curriculum:
Curriculum is that which makes a diiference between
maturity and immaturity, between growt and stasis,
between literacy and illiteracy, between sophistication
(Inteelectual, Moral, Social, and Emotional) and simplicity.
From the definitions above, it is
possible to state that a curriculum has
the following nature:
It comprises the experiences of
children for which the school is
responsible.
It has content.
It is planned.
It is a series of courses to be taken by
students.

A curriculum considers the learners and their
interaction with each other, the teacher and the
materials.
The output and outcomes of a curriculum are
evaluated.
1.2 Scope of Curriculum:
Reatization of Educational
objectives
Proper use of time and energy
Acquisition of knowledge
Determining structure of content
Development of personality

Goals: The benchmarks of expectations for
teaching and learning often made explicit in the
form of a scope and sequence of skills to be
addressed;
Methods: The specific instructional methds for
the teacher, often described in a teacher’s edition;
Materials: The media and tools that are used for
teaching and learning;
Assessment: The reasons for and methods of
measuring student progess.
Basic contents definied by state standards
Comparitive studie and global perspectives
Special topics: Peace studie, Enviornmental issues

Foundations of curriculum:
Are the basic factors, forces, sources, or determinants
that influence and shape the components of the
curriculum (objectives, contents, learning experiences,
organization and evaluation).
Set the external boundaries of the knowledge of
curriculum and define what constitutes valid source of
information from accepted theories, principles and ideas
relevant to the field of curriculum.

When we develop education/curriculum, we
depend primarily on ideas that stem from
four major sources:
The most common accepted foundations of
curriculum include:
1. Philosophical foundations of curriculum
2. Sociological foundations of curriculum
3. Psychological foundations of curriculum
4. Historical foundations of curriculum

Major
foundations of
Curriculum
Philosphical
Foundations of
Curriculum
Historical
Foundations of
Curriculum
Psychological
Foundations of
Curriculum
Social
Foundations of
Curriculum

An understanding of the fields of : philosophy,
sociology, history of education and psychology is
crucial to the study of education/curriculum since
they have traditionally been and still are
considered as foundations.
1. Philosophical foundations of curriculum:
Philosophy refers to Curriculum perspectives
are theories of knowledge which are an
important source of curriculum decisions.
Philosophy gives meaning to our decisions and
actions
Refer to values, ideals, assumptions and
ideologies of the person towards the curriculum.

The philosophy advocated by a school of
thought influences its goals or aims and
contents as well as the organization of its
curriculum.
 Philosophy is the beginning point in
curriculum decisions (curr, dev’t).
 It becomes very essential in formulating
and justifying educational purposes,
selecting and organizing knowledge,
formulating procedures and activities and
evaluating educational outcomes.

Philosophy serves to provide an answer to a
question of “What is worth to learn?” , What is
good and bad? What is wrong and right?
There is no universally acceptable sources of
knowledge.
Theories about sources of knowledge
Two main types of theories have been influential in
explaining the nature/ sources of human knowledge:
1. The rationalist view of knowledge
2. The Empiricists view of knowledge

Rationalists perspectives:
Rationalists say: True knowledge is achieved by the
mind
According to this view, ideas do not exist outside the
human mind.
Although human ideas are accompanied by sense-
images, it is only by the power of abstraction in the
human mind and not by sensations that we attain the
truth.
Thus the rationalists reject the notion that sensation
is an important means to acquire knowledge and truth.
They argue that mind can attain true knowledge
independently of the senses by deductive reasoning
and intuition.
The rationalists presume that the spiritual
(immaterial) world is the key to reality.
They take the position that human beings know
objects only through ideas and reasons of mind.

Defines curriculum as a subject matter to be taught
They reject curriculum as an experience or an
activity,
Plato (Greek philosopher of fourth century BC. for
example, believed that children are born with a great
many ideas that remain dormant until stimulated by
experience and teaching (theory of innate ideas).
Empiricists Perspectives:
Empiricists think: True knowledge is derived
from our external environment through
sensation or sense organs
Gives primary importance to the nature. It
gives a primary place to sensations in the
process of understanding nature

 Observation, sense experience, experimentation, are
used to as a methods to acquire knowledge
Knowledge is the product of the interaction between
the external stimuli and mind.
Locke believed the human mind to be a blank slate
at birth that gathered all its information from its
surroundings
To illustrate his idea Locke pictured the mind at
birth as a tabular Rosa (shaved tablet)
According to John Lock, the mind of child at birth
is like a white paper or tabula rasa.

 Communes argued that the senses, especially those of
sight and hearing are the sources of impression form
which knowledge could be constructed.
 According to him knowledge develops out of
experience with the environment (sense realism).
• Jean Rousseau (1712-1778) wrote that man comes forth good
from the hand of God and becomes evil only through contact
with the society that surrounds him.
• Rousseau's view is clear: the environment is far more
important than heredity.
• Both rationalists and empiricists agree that sound knowledge
provides an important basis for the curriculum.

Common Educational Philosophies:
Common philosophical orientations
Idealism,
Realism,
Perennialism,
Essentialism,
Experimentalism,
Existentialism,
Constructivism,
Re-constructivism

Philosphical Foundations of Curriculum
Child
Centeredness
Naturalistic
Philosophy
Need
Centeredness
Pragmatic
Philosophy
Activity
Centeredness
Project and
Basic
Curriculum

2. Psychological foundation
of the curriculum
This refers how the students can
learn. This infers in the
development of the curriculum,
considering the needs and interests
of the students are a must.
Psychology is considered as a basis
for the teaching and learning
process. It is cement/ medication
that cements the process of
teaching and learning in the
classroom.
It provides the theories and
principles that governs the
students and teachers.

•Learning theories and the curriculum:
By implication, it emphasizes the need to
recognize diversity among learners. However, it is
also true that people share certain common
characteristics. Among these are basic
psychological needs, which are necessary for
individuals to lead a complete and happy life. In
this section, we shall be talking about the major
learning theories and their contribution to
curriculum development

There are different theories of learning that governs
teachers and students in the classroom. For the sake
of convenience we have classified the major theories
of learning into the following groups.
These are:
1. Mental discipline
2. Behavouralism
3. Cognitivism
4. Constructivism
5. Humanistic theories
6. Gestalt theories of learning

3. Sociological foundation of curriculum
o Attention is given to personality factors and
interactions among people .
o This is to mean that where curriculum
development is based on the culture norms,
values and beliefs of a given society.
o In the development of the curriculum,
culture is considered as the heart of
curriculum from the societal point of views.

4. Historical Foundations of Curriculum
 Historical foundation refers to a systematic
analysis of curriculum developments during a
given period.
 It is based on the chronological recording of
educational incidents pertaining to curriculum
starting from the past to the present and
forecast the future or by delineating and
tracing various educational movements during
a selected period.
 Knowledge of history is essential to making
responsible curriculum decision.
 It servess the laboratory for studying a
phenomena and process under the curriculum
practices

Knowing what happened in the past helps to make better
judgments about what might happen today or tomorrow under
similar circumstance.
Studying the past might remind us to ask questions about what
we might have overlooked.
The study of curriculum history can help us develop more
constructive attitudes toward the present.
1.4 Historical overview of curriculum:
Although curriculum has been a consideration of writers on
education for centuries, (Plato, Aristotle, Communes, John
Lock, Rousseau, Frobel, Herbert, and John Dewy), the specialized
and systematic study of curriculum and curricular phenomena
and the identification of certain individuals as curriculum
specialists did not occur until the 20th-century.

 Curriculum as a field of study is relatively a young discipline.
 Most people place its birth date during the 2nd and 3rd decades of
the 20th century (1920s and 1930s), often with the publication of
Frankline Bobbits book, "The Curriculum" in 1918.
 He produced the book” The Curriculum” in 1918, a work that is
generally acknowledged to be the first book totally devoted to
curriculum in all its phases. In 1924, Bobbitt again published
another book “How to Make a Curriculum”.
 The book elaborates the practical procedures of producing a
curriculum.
 The 1920s to 1930s are usually regarded as the formative/
ferment years of the curriculum as a field of study.

It was during these years following the publication of Bobbitt’s
book that volumes on curriculum began to appear.
For example, W.W. Charter of Ohio State University published
“Curriculum Construction” in 1923.
“How to make a curriculum” appeared as Bobbitts second major
work on curriculum in 1924.
In 1926 the National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE)
published two-volume work entitled “The foundation and
Technique of curriculum – construction”.
During this period the emergence of curriculum as
a field of study manifested itself in various
curriculum revisions.
The 1930s brought further developments that
established curriculum as a field of study that called
for foundation of departments curriculum in MOE
for curriculum revision.
Finally, the development of the Association of
Curriculum.

 In 1938 the first Department of Curriculum
and Teaching was established at Teachers college
of Columbia University.
 Today most colleges have a department of
curriculum. Therefore, throughout the world
Curriculum specialization and as a field of study
is recognized.
1.5 Approaches to curriculum and
curriculum theorizing
There are four curriculum
approches, Namily
1.Bhevioural Approach
2.Managerial Approach
3.System Approach
4.Humanistic Approach

A curriculum development approach reflects the view of scholars
towards curriculum development.
An approach expresses a view point about the development and
design of curriculum, the role of the learner, teacher and
curriculum specialist in planning curriculum, the goals and
objectives of the curriculum, and the important issues that need
to be examined.
Curriculum approaches can be viewed from two angles :
a. technical and non-technical, or
b. scientific and non-scientific (naturalistic) perspectives

Technical-Scientific
Applies scientific methods and
principles to the task of
curriculum development.
Assumptions:
• Reality is definable
• The goals of education are
knowable
• A linear, objective process will
yield a useful documents and high
quality plans

Technical-Scientific
Deductive Process
•Start from general to specific aspects
•Top down
•Extensive administrator involvement
•Starts by examining broader questions/purposes of
education and societal needs before addressing the
classroom level
Key authors: Tyler, Hass, Hunkins,

Naturalistic/ Non Technical
Nontechnical-nonrational approach
Assumptions:
• All goals of education cannot be predefined
• Content can only be tentatively selected
• Curriculum development is highly political
requiring administrators and teachers to work
together
Key author: Glatthorn (naturalistic model)

Inductive Process
• Starts from specific to general aspects
• Bottom up
• Curriculum development
by classroom teachers
• Starts by developing individual units which will be
assembled into a cohesive program

There are the five major approaches in curriculum.
The first three are classified as technical or scientific, and the
later two as non-technical and non-scientific approaches.
1. Behavioral-Rational Approach /instrumental approach
2. System-Managerial Approach
3. The Intellectual – Academic Approach
4. Humanistic-Aesthetic Approach/ artistic approach
5. Re-conceptualists
Curriculum Approaches and Theorizing

Behavioral-Rational / instrumental Approach
Behavioural-rational approach is the oldest and still the
major approach to curriculum that rooted in the works of
Bobbitt, Charter, Tyler and Taba.
It is a means-ends approach it is logical and
prescriptive.
It relies on technical and scientific principles, and
includes models, plans and step-by-step strategies for
formulating curriculum.
Goals and objectives are specified and contents and
activities are sequenced to coincide with the objectives,
and learning outcomes are evaluated in relation to the
goals and objectives.

 It is based on thorough analysis, clear and measurable
objectives for the development process are formulated.
 These objectives provide the reference points for the
design process.
It is also called planning by objectives.
 An important advocate of this movement is Ralph
Tyler.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
The technical approach focuses on factual,
empirically found data, while education is also
concerned with personal views and opinions;
Also, social-political aspects play a prominent part in
many curricular issues.

Disadvantages of this instrumental
approach/technical approach.
The strong emphasis on the attainment of
predetermined objectives leaves little flexibility to
adjust to the often changing needs of users and
growing insights of designers.
2. System-Managerial/Communicative Approach
Consideration is given to committee and group
processes, communication processes, leadership
methods and strategies, human relations, and
decision-making.

Communicatve Approach:
 The communicative approach emphasizes the importance of
relational strategies.
 From this perspective, building relationships with stakeholders
and soliciting the input of developers and other parties involved
are crucial.
 Designing is regarded as a social process in which the
interested parties each have their own vision on the problem
situation and the desired improvement..
 Deliberation/discussion and negotiation are the core of the
design process
 A well-known example of the communicative approach in
curriculum development is the deliberative model by Decker
Walker (1971, 1990).

 In Walker’s view, the then popular instrumental models, such as
Tyler’s, were not of much use in the complex practice of
negotiations about desired features of curricular products.
His model comprises three phases:
1. The platform of ideas: During this first phase, designers
and other parties involved present their views and
opinions about the problem, while striving for consensus
2. Deliberation: Designers and other parties involved
generate possible solutions for the problem identified and
discuss the most desirable solution
3. Design: During this phase, the results of the deliberation
phase are transformed into a draft of the final product.

Advantage
One of the strengths of the deliberative model is the broad
social support that the intended product will have; after
all, users and other parties involved were given ample
opportunity to contribute.
Disadvantage
However, deliberation processes can be very time-
consuming and laborious and may not necessarily result in
internally consistent products.

The Intellectual-Academic Approach
 The intellectual – academic approach
sometimes referred to as knowledge-oriented
approach.
 The approach tends to be historical or
philosophical, and, to a lesser extent, social in
nature.
 The discussion of curriculum making is usually
scholarly and theoretical (not practical), and
concerned with many broad aspects of schooling,
including the study of education.

Humanistic-Aesthetic/Artistic Approach
 Humanistic-aesthetic curricularists
contend that the above described
curriculum approaches are rigid, and miss
the artistic and personal aspects of
curriculum and do not consider the need of
self-reflectiveness and self-actualization
among learners, and ignore socio-
psychological dynamics of schools.
 Various socio-psychological and child
centred theories to curriculum are derived
from this approach.

 Curriculum specialists who believe in Humanistic-aesthetic
approach tend to put faith in
Co-operative learning,
Independent learning,
Small group learning, and
Social activities as opposed to competitive, teacher-
dominated, large group learning, and only cognitive
instruction.
 Each child according to this approach has considerable
input in curriculum, and shares responsibility with parents,
teachers, and curriculum specialists in planning the
curriculum.

 There are no objective criteria or fixed procedures for
them to follow;
 The approach emphasizes the creativity of the
designer.
 In this approach, it is assumed that designing is a
subjective process that is guided by designers´ personal
views and expertise.
 Above all else, the designer is an artist who will follow
his own intuition, taste and experience as guidelines in
the design process.
 Eisner is a well-known advocate of the artistic approach
of curriculum development.
 In this context, Elliot Eisner (1979) uses the term
‘connoisseurship’: the skills and the ability to value what is
educationally relevant.

According to Eisner, such a reflection on the curriculum should be
aimed at the seven aspects of the curriculum:
1. objectives,
2. content,
3. learning situations,
4. organization of learning experiences,
5. organization of content,
6. presentation forms, and
7. evaluation forms.
Re-conceptialists
* Re-conceptualists view schools as an extension of the humanistic
approach.
* This approach wish to rethink, reconsider, the curriculum.
* But they lack a model for developing and designing curriculum
* Their approach to curriculum is subjective, political and ideological,
and they do not rely on either the hard sciences or empirical methods
for answers.

Pragmatic Approach
 The pragmatic approach focuses on the practical usability of
curricular products.
 John Dewey was the advocator of this philosophy.
 Curriculum development takes place in close interaction with
local practice and users.
 Formative evaluation and continuous assessment is a core
activity.
Conclusion:
 Which approach is to be preferred depends on the level of
curriculum development.
 At macro level, the communicative or instrumental approach is
often used, while the artistic and the academic/ intellectual approach
one is more suitable for use at micro level, in the classroom.

• The approach chosen depends on the composition of the design
team. In a large team of designers, much time is needed for
discussion, which will automatically place the emphasis on the
deliberative approach.
• If the designer operates alone or as part of a small team, there is
more latitude for individual creativity, as emphasized in an artistic
approach.
Summary of the four approaches to curriculum
development
 Instrumental approach
Planning by objectives
 Communicative approach
Importance of relational strategies
 Artistic approach
Emphasizes creativity of designer
 Pragmatic approach
Focuses on practical usability of curriculular products

Unit Two: Curriculum Design
and Development
2.1. The concept of curriculum
Design and Development
2.2. Principles and approaches
of curriculum development
2.3. Models of curriculum
development
2.4. Types of curriculum Design

Curriculum design is the planning period when instructors
organize the instructional units for their course. Curriculum
design involves planning activities, readings, lessons, and
assessments that achieve educational goals.
Curriculum design can be segmented into three forms. These
include;
A. Subject-centered design,
B. Learner-centered design and
C. Problem-centered design.
Subject-centered design focuses on a specific discipline while
learner-centered design focuses on students’ own interests
and goals. Problem-centered design focuses on specific issues
and how to source solutions.
2.1. The Concept of Curriculum Design and Development

Concept of Curriculum Design:
The practice of organizing curriculum— activities,
environments, goals, knowledge, student and teacher
interests, social conditions, technologies, values and the
like— into a containable pedagogical form involves a
series of judgments. Judgments are necessarily made on
what and whose knowledge is of most worth, the scope
and sequence of this knowledge, how student desires will
be focused, what technologies to deploy or purchase and
so on. Curriculum designs lend form to, and chart
provisions for, the processes of learning and teaching and
become concrete and operational at various stages of
educational practice.

The very nature of student experiences are shaped by the way
we choose to design, or not design, curriculum. In other
words, different curriculum designs provide varied qualities
and powers of experience and knowledge. Curriculum design
might at first glance appear to be about the economics and
pragmatics of teaching, about arranging content and
assignments, apportioning time on imetables, and allocating
resources. Curriculum is, and is much more than, scope and
sequence. Mundane and profound judgments are made when
we plan, shape and judge human experience. Congruence
between educational outcomes and curriculum documents is
virtuous; but when curriculum design is seen as the moral and
political endeavor that it is, the issue takes on deeper
significance.

What should be learned? How ought it be organized for teaching?
Curriculum design involves a form into which curriculum is cast or
organized. Curriculum is generally organized through designs such
as:
1. Disciplines (E.g., Mathematics, Engineering, Humanities,
Sciences);
2. Fields (E.g., Art, Civics, Design, Home Economics, Industrial
Arts, Social Studies);
3. Units (E.g., Bicycling; Child Labor; Feminism, Jazz; Mass Media;
Queer Fiction; Verbs; Water Colors);
4. Organizing Centers (E.g., Activities, Modules, Minicourses,
Problems, Processes, Projects, Tasks and Competencies);
or Personal Pursuits (E.g., Aerobics, Autobiography, Cooking, Bird
watching, Guitar playing).
4. Core or Interdisciplinary designs employ combinations of
disciplines or broad fields (Petrina, 1998).

Curriculum designs are generally selected for their powers in
bolstering political causes and conferring political status, and
since the early 1960s, disciplinary designs have been politically
valued over the others. High school humanities and sciences
employed disciplinary designs in the early 1960s to secure
economic and liberal roles. Projects and units conferred a
progressive status in the 1910s and 1920s for newcomers in
the school curriculum such as industrial arts, audio-visual
education and social studies. Just as teaching methods are
associated with different theoretical "families," curriculum
designs have theoretical orientations.

In 1949, Ralph Tyler summed up centuries of curriculum design
into four simple steps. For Tyler, the process of curriculum
design amounted to a way of resolving four questions, or a
rationale:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to
be useful in attaining these purposes?
3. How can learning experiences be organized for effective
instruction?
4. How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be
evaluated?

In the 1960s, curriculum designers such as Hilda Taba reduced
Tyler's curriculum rationale into
a simple procedure:
1. Diagnosis of needs.
2. Formulation of objectives.
3. Selection of content.
4. Organization of content.
5. Selection of learning experiences.
6. Organization of learning experiences.
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the ways and means of
doing it.
This procedure has defined curriculum design since that time.
Curriculum design became little more than a determination of
goals, activities, content, delivery systems and assessment
techniques.

2.1. The concept of curriculum Development
Curriculum development can be defined as the step-by-step
process used to create positive improvements in the courses
offered by a school, college or university. The world changes
every day and new discoveries have to be roped into the
education curricula.
Curriculum development means a continuous or: never
ending process. Its outcome is known through students’
achievement of learning. Its assessment is made on the basis
of change of behavior of the learners.

In curriculum development, the main focus of the curriculum is to
develop the students. The curriculum is designed to realize the
objective in terms of change of their behavior.
It is cyclic process which includes.
1. Teaching objectives,
2. Methods of teaching,
3. Examination and
4. Feedback.
1. Teaching Objectives: In view of subject
content be taught, three types of teaching
objectives are identified as cognitive, affective
and psychomotor. These objectives are written
in behavioral terms. All learning experiences are
organized to achieve these objectives.

2. Method of Teaching: Teaching strategies are the most
important ‘aspects of providing learning experiences. The
content is the means to select the method of teaching and
level of the pupils. ;
3. Process of Evaluation: The evaluation of change of
behavior is made to ascertain about the realization of the
teacher learning objectives. The level of pupils performance
indicates the effectiveness of method of teaching and learning
experiences
4. Feed back: The interpretation of performance provides the
teacher to improve and modify the form of the curriculum. The
curriculum is developed and teaching objectives are also
revised. The methodology of teaching is changed in view of the
objectives to be achieved.

Bases of Development of Curriculum
The development of curriculum is the commitment for
realizing desired objectives of education. The objectives are
based on various considerations and factors. The same
considerations are equally important in planning or deciding
the basic structure of curriculum. The following are the bases
of transaction of curriculum:
1. Social philosophy of the society.
2. National needs or State needs.
3. Nature of course of study.
4. Type of examination system.
5. Form of the government.
6. Theory and assumptions of human
organization.

7. Growth and development stage of students.
8. Recommendations of national commissions and committee of
education.
The above basis of curriculum management and educational
objectives are theoretical and practical. The last basis is more
practical in transaction of curriculum.
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM DEVLOPMENT
There at three components of educational process i.e. teacher,
students and curriculum. It ‘has three types of objectives,
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Educational process
involves three major activities teaching, training and instruction.

According to B.S. Bloom, it is a tri-polar process
(1) Educational process,
(2) Learning experiences and
(3) Change of behavior. It is also a triangular process.
The teaching process is done through interaction between
teacher and students. The curriculum is the basis for the
interaction between teacher, and taught.

Basic Elements of Curriculum Development
The educational process includes teaching, training and
instructional activities. Teaching activities are performed by a
Teacher. They are planned or designed by the teacher
according to four components-
(l) Teaching-learning objectives
(2) Teaching content or subject-matter
(3) Teaching method and
(4) Evaluation learning outcomes.
In the curriculum development, the level of students, needs of the
society and nation, the nature of content and means of voicing
learning experiences are considered as important factors, “use are
essential in identifying the objectives of teaching-learning. Several
types of teaching objectives are attained by the same content..
Teaching is organized from memory to reflective level on the same
content of subject-matter.

The specific or behavioral objectives are realized by organizing
specific teaching task and activities. Thus curriculum
development involves four basic elements.
(1) Objectives
(2) Content
(3) Method or strategies of teaching, and
(4) Evaluation.
These elements are interdependent.
The Objective: The subjects content structure,
levels of students, and type of examination
components are considered in the identification of
objectives of teaching and learning. These
objectives are specific. These are written in
behavioral terms so as to develop learning
structures aid conditions.

Content or Subject-matter: The content of any subject is
usually broad. It is analyzed into sub-content and into elements.
These elements are arranged in a logical sequence. The
behavioral objectives are written with the help of these elements
of the content. It is also known as logic of teaching.
Strategy of teaching: Specific objectives of teaching are
attained with the help of appropriate teaching strategy. The
behavioral objectives provide the awareness and insight about the
specific learning conditions the strategy is employed for
providing learning experiences and bringing desirable behavioral
change.

Evaluation: The level of student’s attainment is evaluated by
employ the criteria referenced test. It shows the effectiveness of
strategy of teaching and other components. The interpretation
of evaluation provide the feedback to the curriculum and its
components. These are improved and modified to attain the
objectives of teaching and learning. It is the empirical basis for
the curriculum development.

Curriculum Transaction Curriculum Development
1
It is a broad concept and
area of curriculum.
1
It is a specific and
narrow concept of
curriculum.
2
Management of
curriculum is done at
initial stage of
introduction of new
courses at school stages
and higher levels.
2
Curriculum development
is a cyclic process use for
improving and modifying
the courses at particular
state of level.
CURRICULUM TRANSATION AND CURRICULUM DEVLOPEMENT
The difference between curriculum transaction and curriculum
development has been summarized in the following table:

3.
Management of
Curriculum employs
the following steps:
(i) Planning,
(ii) Organizing,
(iii) Administering,
(iv) Guiding and,
(v) Controlling.
3.
It is a cyclic
process using
the following four
steps:
(i) ‘Objectives,
(ii) Instructional.
methods,
(iii) Evaluation
method,
(iv) Feedback.

4.
Transaction of curriculum
is a much more difficult
task because it involves
planning and preparing the
course of discipline at
school and university level
It is used for specific
course for specific stage.
Relatively it is an easy and
simple task.
5.
Curriculum management is
one by boards of study and
boards of education. In
some discipline councils
plan and control. At
university level there are
Boards of studies for
different subjects.
Curriculum development is
done by board of studies.
The new courses and
content are also included it
revised curriculum. On that
basis of try out the new
courses.
6.
It is based on
theoretical aspect.
It is a continuous process
based on practical aspect of
curriculum.

Teachers are required to make guesses about the probable future
and plan appropriately. Teachers therefore need to plan their
curriculum according to the more likely future their students
face while at the same time acknowledging that the students
have a future. The competent leader cannot plan according to
past successes, as if doing so will force the past to remain with
him. The most competent leader and manager, in fact, is not
even satisfied with thoughts of the future, but is never satisfied,
always sure that whatever is being done can be improved.

2.2 Principles and Approaches of Curriculum Development
THE PRINCIPLE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Should integrate child's activities and needs, on the other
hand, the needs of 21st century should be there. ...
a) Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor objective and abilities.
b) Knowledge and experience.

2.3. Models of Curriculum Development
What is model?
 model is representation of philosophical
orientation (worldview) of reality, which is
based on body of theory about teaching and
learning
 Models of curriculum is some thing that give
orders for the process of curriculum
development.
 Model is a mental picture/ road map that
helps us to understand something we cannot
see or experience directly (Dorin, Demmin &
Gabel, 1990).

 Like what it mean by the curriculum, there is also a
debate on the types of model used in the development of
the curriculum to achieve a societal needs.
 Because of their differences in the educational philosophy
and educational psychology, and other reasons,
curricularists have not reached consensus on one best
model of curriculum. The different curricularists have
proposed different models, each with its own strength and
weakness. In this section three curriculum development
models are briefly presented

 There are several models of
curriculum development but the
commonly known models of
curriculum development are:
1) Objective model
2) Process Model
3) Situation analysis model

1. Objective model
 This model is also called the rational/classical/ means-
end model.
 Types of model where the results/ objectives are pre-
specified. It is some time called product model.
 It emphasizes the fixed sequence of curriculum
elements, beginning with objectives and following a
sequential pattern from objectives to content, method, and
finally evaluation.
 In this pattern objectives serve as a basis for
devising subsequent elements, with evaluation
indicating the degree of achievement of those
objectives.

 Result oriented, end means approach.
 Types of objective model: Tyler model, Taba model, wheeler
model, Hass and Parkay model.
Linear model : Tyler model
 It is some times called rational, technical, scientific
model.
 It is goal oriented and linear in process.
 It was developed by the American psychologist called
Ralph Tyler in 1949.
 Tyler formulated four basic questions in order to
develop curriculum.

Tyler’s four basic questions raised in the development of
curriculum are:
 Which objectives should education aim for?
 Which learning experiences are most suitable in
order to obtain these objectives?
 How could these learning experiences be organized
effectively?
 How can we determine whether the objectives have
been achieved?

In short the Tyler's four steps of curriculum
development derived from for basics questions raised
by Tyler are:
1). Defining the objectives
2). Selection of the learning Experiences
3). Organization of those experiences and
4). Evaluation

Sources of objectives for Tyler model
What are the sources of objectives for the Tyler model
Tyler suggested three important sources for the selection of
objectives
These are the 1. Subject matter / specialists
2. Learners
3. Contemporary life of the society
Tyler suggests the screening devices to chose the best objectives
among lists of objectives:
1. Philosophical screening devices : what is good and bad, right
and wrong
2. Psychological screening devices : needs and interests of the
students and their mental development ( age level) .

3. These two screening devices helps to come with the
precise objectives from the long lists of the identified
Tentative objectives from the three sources of
objectives
Hila Taba Model/Linear model:
Hilda Taba is some times called a grass root
model where teachers are the major input in
the process of curriculum development.
She proposed a seven steps model in 1962.
These are
1. Diagnosis of Needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of contents

4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning activities
7. Evaluation and Means of Evaluation
Linear: Hass & Parkay Model
1. Identify context (gather data about intended learners
and the human, social, and environmental variables
within which learners interact)
2. Determine objectives
Set goals
3. Select , Prepare, & Implement ---->
Strategies and Alternatives
4. Evaluate

 Cyclical models view elements of the curriculum as interrelated
and interde:pendent.
 They do not view objective, methods, content and evaluation as
rigidly separate categories.
 They realistically accept a degree of interdependence between the
various curriculum elements.
 Representatives of the cyclical models are Wheeler, and Audrey
Nicholls and Howard Nicholls.
Wheeler, Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls The Cyclical
models
Wheeler model
o He developed a cyclical model in the development of the
curriculum in 1967.
o His model is similar to the Tyler model except that this model is
cyclical in nature; whereas, TYLER MODEL linear in shape

Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls in 1978 devised a straight
forward cyclical approach that covered the elements of
curriculum briefly.
They suggested five interdependent stages that are needed in the
continuous curriculum process:
Stage 1: Situation analysis;
Stage 2: Selection of objectives;
Stage 3: Selection and organization of content;
Stage 4: Selection and organization of method;
Stage 5: Evaluation.
Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls

Attempts to improve the Tyler model
D.H WHEELER
Wheeler has tried to improve the Tyler model. The two
improvements are:
1. Extended the four step into five, indicated the section of
learning experience and selection of content as separate
steps.
2. Tried to improve the linearly problems.
•Taba has also tried to improve the Tyler model. She
elaborated the second and third steps of the Tyler model
and came up with some seven steps.
–Diagnosis of needs
–Formulating objectives/purpose of education
–Selecting content

–Selecting learning experiences
–Organizing learning experiences
–Determining what to evaluate
–Determining how to evaluate
Strengths of Rational Model
 The very nature of the rational model is logical and sequential
structure.
 Furthermore, it provides a chance to set the end results and
exert all possible resources into the process. Contents,
methods, materials and evaluation instruments including the
procedures are selected by referring to the objectives set ahead
of time. It reduces the expenditure.
 Effective methods can be used. Efficiency in instruction is
attainable.

Weaknesses of the rational model:
 Weakness of the objective model arises from the
unpredictable nature of teaching and learning. (Unforeseen
factors could affect learning process).
 With limited time available, classroom teachers may avoid
writing behavioral objectives (formulating measurable
outcomes).
2.The Process Model
 This model is different in that in which
content and learning experiences as well
as principles and procedures are pre-
specified rather than anticipated
outcomes in terms of objectives.
 In this approach focuses on process
than outcomes.

 The end product is not specified before hand in terms of
behavior but can be evaluated using the criteria inherent in
the field of knowledge.
 Emphasis on means rather than ends.
 This model was developed by the Lawrence Stenhouse in
1975.
Steps in the process model
There are four major steps in the
process model of curriculum
development . These are:
 Selection of Content
 Selection of Learning Experience
 Selection of objectives
 Evaluation Stage

Selection of contents --- Selection learning experiences ---
Selection of purpose (aims, goals, objectives) ---- Evaluation
Only the organization content and learning experience is
absent from the process model all the other stages correspond
to stage in the objective model; and objectives are placed at
the end.
3. The Situation Analysis Model
 This model focuses on the situation/ context in
which the teaching-learning occurs rather than
focusing on outcomes and processes.
 The base or root for this model is the cultural
analysis. Curriculum development should be
carried out at school level.

 School based curriculum development is the most effective
model.
 This model is highly flexible. It could vary from school to
school based on the need and interests of the society.
 Teachers can develop their own curriculum according to
their reality of the school.
 In this model recommendations about the curriculum are
made separately for each institutional situation as these are
assumed to be unique.
 The model was developed by the Skilbeck and Lawton.

According to Skilbeck (1967) the model has five major
components
1. Situational analysis (audit) review of the situation and an
analysis of the interacting elements. two factors to be considered
are:
A) External: political system (ideological shift),Parental and
community expectation, Change of subject disciplines,
Availability of teacher support systems from universities and
colleges.
B) Internal: Student background (motivation, age, and ability),
teacher background (qualification, motivation, and experience),
and school climate, class size, discipline, materials (textbooks)
equipment, resources (finance, material, and library),Problem.

2.Goal formulation: goals are derived from the outcomes or
results of the situational analysis.
3. Program building: This comprises the selection of subject
matter, the sequencing of teaching and learning episodes
/incidents/, the development of staff and the choice of
appropriate supplementary materials and media.
4. Implementation: start to use the curriculum, put the
curriculum into practice
5. Monitoring and revision: Tasks here include providing on-
going assessment of progress of a wide rang of outcomes and
keeping adequate records based on responses from a variety of
participants( teachers and students)

In short, the Skilbeck model:
 This is school based curriculum development model . It is a
five step model
Situational analysis
Goal formulation
Program building
Interpretation and
evaluation
Monitoring , feed back,
assessment and
recommendation

Lawton model
• This model is also a school based curriculum
development with five step model.
• It begin with the asking philosophical questions.
Philosophical questions Sociological questions
Selection from culture
Psychological questions
Organization of culture

Summary
The objective model, process model and situation model are
called the general models of curriculum development, whereas
the Tyler, Taba, wheeler, Aundey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls,
Hass and Parkay, Stenhoues , Skilbeck and Lawton model are
called the specific model of curriculum development model.
Assignment
1. Which model do you think is appropriate
for Ethiopia? Give your justification
2. Discuss the contribution of Taba in
improving the Tyler model?

2.4. Types of curriculum Design
There are three basic types of curriculum design:
1. Subject-centered,
2. Learner-centered, and
3. Problem-centered design.
Subject-centered curriculum design revolves
around a particular subject matter or
discipline, such as mathematics, literature
or biology. This type of curriculum design
tends to focus on the subject, rather than
the student. It is the most common type of
standardized curriculum.

Subject-centered curriculum design is not student-
centered, and the model is less concerned with
individual learning styles compared to other forms of
curriculum design. This can lead to problems with
student engagement and motivation and may cause
students who are not responsive to this model to fall
behind.
1. Traditional or Subject-Centered Curriculum
 This model focuses on te content of the curriculum.
 The Subject centered design corresponds mostly to the
textbook written for te specific subject.

2. Learner-Centered or Experience-Centered
Curriculum
 Experiences of the learners become the startin point of the
curriculum.
 Thus the schoolenvironment is left open and free.
 Learners are made to choose from various activities that
the teacher provides.
 The learner are compowered to shape their own learning
from the different oppertunities given by the teacher.
Learner-centered curriculum design, by contrast, revolves
around student needs, interests and goals. It acknowledges that
students are not uniform but individuals, and therefore should
not, in all cases, be subject to a standardized curriculum. This
approach aims to empower learners to shape their education
through choices.

Differentiated instructional plans provide an opportunity
to select assignments, teaching and learning experiences,
or activities. This form of curriculum design has been
shown to engage and motivate students. The drawback to
this form of curriculum design is that it can create
pressure on the educator to source materials specific to
each student’s learning needs. This can be challenging due
to teaching time constraints. Balancing individual student
interests with the institution’s required outcomes could
prove to be a daunting task.

3. Problem-Centered Curriculum
 Life situations involving real problems of practice.
Problems that revolve around life at a given school.
Problems selected from local issues.
Philosophical or moral problems.
Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how to
look at a problem and formulate a solution. Considered an
authentic form of learning because students are exposed to
real-life issues, this model helps students develop skills that
are transferable to the real world. Problem-centered
curriculum design has been shown to increase the relevance
of the curriculum and encourages creativity, innovation and
collaboration in the classroom. The drawback to this format is
that it does not always consider individual learning styles.

By considering all three types of curriculum design before
they begin planning, instructors can choose the types that
are best suited to both their students and their course.
Conclusion:
Developing, designing and implementing an education
curriculum is no easy task. With the rise of educational
technology and the diverse types of students attending
higher educational institutions these days, instructors have
their work cut out for them. But by following the
fundamental guidelines and framework of curriculum
development, educators will be setting themselves — and
their students — up for long-term success.

Unit Three: Components of curriculum
Development
3.1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and objectives
3.2. Categories and setting of educational
objectives
3.3. Curriculum content and learning Experience
3.4. Curriculum organization and evaluation
3.5. Factors that influence curriculum design

3.1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and objectives
Curriculum aims/goals. Broad descriptions of purposes or ends
stated in general terms without criteria of achievement or
mastery. Curriculum aims or goals relate to educational aims and
philosophy. They are programmatic and normally do not delineate
the specific courses or specific items of content.
The components of the curriculum development are highly
interlinked and interrelated, one cannot exist in the absence of
another.
These interrelationships between the core components of the
curriculum forms a structure like spider web and called the
curriculum spider web (van den Akker, 2003).
What are the components that forms the curriculum spider web,
which could also be the components of the curriculum
development?

Aim is defined as general statements that
provide both shape and direction to the more
specific actions designed to achieve some
future product or behavior.
The achievement of educational aim is a long-
term affair and may occur at the completion of
schooling.
Aims are dived from policy or philosophy of
education of the country.
Aims of Education

Goals of Education
 Goals are not open statements like aims. They
are specific than aim
 Goals are derived from aims that they provide
teachers and curriculum decision makers with
statements, which indicate what, should be
accomplished in terms of students’ learning as a
result of particular subject or educational program.

Educational objectives
 Specific statement to be attained with
in specific period of time.
 It normally refers to an intended/pre-
specified outcome of a planned program
of teaching
 It is expressed in terms of what the
student is expected to learn.
In formulating objectives the sequence
is as:
 Philosophy aims goals general
objectives Specific objectives

Broad descriptions of purposes or ends stated in
general terms without criteria of achievement or
mastery. Curriculum aims or goals relate to
educational aims and philosophy. They are
programmatic and normally do not delineate the
specific courses or specific items of content. Typically
they refer to the accomplishment of groups (e.g. all
learners, learners in general, most learners) rather
than the achievement of individual learners. They are
broad enough to lead to specific curriculum objectives.
Examples include: ‘students will learn to respect and
get along with people of different cultures’; ‘students
will develop a sense of civic responsibility’; ‘students
will attain an appreciation for literature, art, music’.

Specific statements setting measurable expectations for what
learners should know and be able to do, described either in
terms of learning outcomes (what the learners are expected to
learn), products or performance (what learners will produce as
a result of a learning activity) or processes (describing the
focus of learning activities). They can be seen as refinements
of curriculum aims/goals that, for example, specify:
performance standards or those skills and knowledge the
learners are expected to be able to demonstrate; inferred or
precise degree of mastery; and the conditions under which the
performance will take place.

In terms of effectiveness, curriculum
objectives should: be concise and
understandable to teachers, learners and
parents; be feasible for the teachers and
learners to accomplish; encompass previous
learning and require the learner to integrate
and then apply certain knowledge, skills, and
attitudes in order to demonstrate
achievement; and be measurable on a
cumulative basis and at different stages of the
learner’s educational career.

3.2. Categories and setting of
Educational objectives
Bloom classified objectives in to three domains. They are
(1) The cognitive domain: used for the development of
intellectual capacity and thinking ability of the
learners .
(2) The affective domain: used for the development of
attitudes, norms, moral, values
(3) The psychomotor domain.: used for the Motor skill
development

The Three DOMAINS:
Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor

COGNITIVE DOMAIN
 Although the three domains overlap frequently, by far the most
well known and heavily emphasized is the cognitive domain,
which deals with “the recall or recognition of knowledge and the
development of intellectual abilities and skills.
 Cognitive domain: involves mental operations from the lowest
level of the simple recall of in formation to complex, high level
evaluation process that includes concepts, ideas factual
knowledge or Intellectual skill.
 Emphasis upon knowledge and further classified in to 6
classes from the simplest/ lowest knowledge to complex/
highest evaluation .

Cognitive Domain
This can be further
classified into six
classes,and arranged
going from simple to
more complex mental
behaviors.
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge

Knowledge- the simplest form of thinking, requires rote
memory and recall of facts, definitions, rules, sequences,
and the like, Verbs- define, recall, list , repeat, memorize,
name.
Example: After successful completion the lesson students
will be able to define planning.

Classification based on cognitive domains of
educational objectives
cognitive level
of questions
Expected behavior Instructional
process
Key words
Knowledge The simple forms of
thinking
It requires
remembering
recalling and
recognizing facts ,
information
terminologies and
rules
Repetition
memorization
Define, list,
name, identify,
describe , define,
label, name,
repeat.duplicate,
match,memorize,
recognize,recall,r
epeat,reproduce

Example: The
student will be
able to indicate
the definition of
planning
Comprehension
/
Understanding
Comprehension-
requires students to
translate, interpret ,
restate, or give examples
to demonstrate their
understanding
Describing and
explaining facts by
changing a form of
communication by
translating and
rephrasing what has
been read or spoken
Explanation
Illustration
Summarize,
paraphrase,
rephrase ,re-state,
intereprete
describe. discuss,
explain, report, tell,
translate, and
review

Summarize, paraphrase,
rephrase ,re-state, intereprete
describe. discuss, explain,
report, tell, translate, and
review
Example: After successful
completion the lesson
students will be able to
explain levels of cognitive
domain

Application Applying the
information learned to
a context different
than the one in which
it was learned
Applies learning to
real life, and/or
concrete situations.
It is ability to use
knowledge and learned
material in meaningful
ways.
Practice,
transfer, Apply, use, employ፣,
prepare, practice,
use. demonstrate,
sketch , solve,
illustrate, use
dramatize, employ,
operate, prepare,
practice, solve ,use,
Example:-
After successful
completion the
lesson students will
be able to solve
quadratic equation
Analysis Breaking material into
its component parts &
to draw relationships
among these parts and
to the whole.
Taking one portion or
piece at a time to
clarify the overall
idea.
Induction
Deduction
distinguish,
differentiate
analyze,
discriminate,
distinguish,
categorize,
compare,
contrast,

Synthesis
(creating)
Combining / putting parts
to form new one or a
unique or novel solution to
a problem.
Organizing ideas into new
patterns and putting
materials together in a
structure which was not
there before.
-produce or create stories
Convergence ,
generalization
Arrange,
assemble, create,
design, formulate,
manage, organize,
plan, setup,
synthesize,
compose, produce,
predict, creatively
imagine፣ collect,
construct, prepare..
-Example: Given a
paragraph the
student will be able
to write a title for it.

Evaluative
questions
Judging the values of ideas,
methods, materials,
procedures, and solutions by
developing and/or using
appropriate criteria
Making decisions/judgment
about the value of ideas,
methods, materials,
procedures and solutions by
using appropriate criteria
-Drew conclusions based on
sound logic after listening to
a debate.
Inference
Appraise, judge, argue,
select, value, chose,
estimate decide, justify,
estimate, evaluate,
predict, assess., appraise,
judge, argue, predict,.
Example: After listening
to students answer to the
question ‘how can
poverty be alleviated’
he/she will judge the
quality of answers by
saying good or bad.

Affective domain
Used for the development of feelings, interest, appreciations,
moral values, attitudes, responses, and convictions of the
learners, which in turn used to change the behavior of the
students.
This is in one way or another, equals with learning, b/c
both of the result in the changes of the behavior of the
learners.
It is further classified in to five classes ranges from the
lowest levels of acquiring receiving to the highest level of
characterization of values action.

Affective domain
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organization
Characterization

1. Receiving: students’ willingness to attend a stimulus through one
of the senses. The simples stage Some of the important action verbs
to be employed at this level are attend, listen, follow, hear, and look
etc
2. Responding: where the student willingly answers to a
stimulus, showing some form of active participation and leading
to a desire to seek out particular activities.
 Some action verbs to be employed here are: conforming, help,
obey, greet, report, etc.

3. Valuing: the student attaches a certain worth to an object,
person, or other phenomenon. Just accepting a value or it may
mean a more comprehensive commitment to a level of personal
responsibility.
Some action verbs to be used at this level are: orientate
/familiarize/, ask, prefer, shade, act, express etc.
4. Organization: the learner will construct a system of values
as a result of considering several different beliefs and
resolving the differences.
 It includes both the acquisition of value by a learner and
the development of a value system
 Some action verbs to be used at this level are: balance,
define, alters, explain, etc.

 The student has integrated a new value into his or her
general set of values and can give it its proper place in a
priority system.
5. Characterization: The stage at which naturalization or
internalization of values are taking places The most complex
stage.
 The individual’s value system has remained the driving force for
his/her behaviors and choices for a long period of time, long
enough to a life style.
 Some action verbs for this level are: revise, avoid, resist,
modifies internalize etc.

Psychomotor domain
Psychomotor domain – used for the development of motor
skills which ranges from the simple level of imitation and
the highest level of naturalization. These are motor skill
such as piano playing, riding bicycle, etc.
There are five levels of the psychomotor domain
1. Imitation- it is repeating an action, copying a pattern etc.
Verbs- shows, repeats, copies, revise, modifies,
internalize etc.
2. Manipulation- following verbal directions, holding tools
correctly or setting up equipments following, for instance,
written directions.
Verbs- follows, holds, places, kicks, create, fasten, etc.

Psychomotor domain
Imitation
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalization

3. Precision- be able to execute an action…
Verbs- draws, catches
4. Articulation- be able to coordinate arms and legs correctly
Verbs- adjusts, performs, prepares etc.
5. Naturalization- accomplishing tasks automatically without
effort.
Verbs- sketches, carries, create, design.
Criterion for selection of objectives
There are seven main criteria that curriculum objectives should
meet. Objectives are:
1. Matching / Consistent / Validity
2. Wording ( precise)
3. Appropriateness/ suitability

4. Comprehensiveness
5. Feasiblity
6. Worth/ Functionality/ Significant to the real
life situation of the society and students
7. Periodic revision
Criterion
1. Matching / Consistent / Validity :
Objectives should be aligned with the aim/ goal from
which they are derived.
2. Word / precise: Objectives should nor revealed different
meaning for different readers.

 Objectives are useful only if they are sufficiently precise
that different people obtain them the same understanding
of the intended learning outcome.
3. Appropriateness / suitability
Objectives should be aligned with the background/ age/
maturity level of the students.
And also aligned with the needs and interests of the
students.
4. Comprehensiveness: All the taxonomic classification of
the objectives should be equally expressed in stating
objectives .

5. Worth / Significance/ f functionality of objectives
to the needs and interests of the students and society
o Objectives should be personally and socially
functional.
o An objective is personally functional if its
statement is likely to benefit the learner at
once or in the future.
o It is socially functional if it benefits people
other than the learner
o An objective may be functional and
significant in principle and yet be
inappropriate in a given curriculum.

Example:
Objectives having to do with preparation for marriage will be
significant for people over eighteen years but are
inappropriate for children of elementary schools.
6. Feasible
feasible in terms of the means and resources available.
7. Periodic revision: Objectives should be changed
accordance with the time.
Ways of writing educational Objectives
 All objectives need to be based on broader aims already
formulated at higher level.
 The objectives at any level must indicate and stress the
desired products or outcomes of learning.
 All statements of objectives combine behavior and content.

 At all levels needs to be comprehensive enough to fairly
include all classes of educational objectives.
 Objectives must be written in terms of students’ behaviors,
but not in terms of teachers’ activities.
 All educational objectives must be stated in a feasible way.
 Educational objectives need to be appropriate.
 Educational objectives shouldn’t contradict with the
existing political system of a state.
 Only one type of behavior and on type of content must be
combined.

3.3. Curriculum Content and Learning Experience
a) Contents are the facts, principles, ideas, information and
concepts that fundamentally constitute a given field of
study or discipline.
Contents are the knowledge, skills and attitudes that the
students acquired from the subject matter.
The flesh of the curriculum.
b) The question ‘What are we going to learn?’ is a core
question in curriculum development.

There are different types of contents.
These are:
1. Descriptive and
2. Normative
1. Descriptive content:- consists of facts and principles. They are
laws, rules, and theories, such as scientific laws and principles.
2. Normative content:- consists of the rules of game, norms, or
standards by which individuals make moral and aesthetic choices.
It represents the value standards men have built up through
generations

Criteria for Selecting Curriculum Content
Curriculum planners are expected to apply the following criteria in
choosing curriculum content.
1. Validity- Validity is the authenticity (actual use) of the content
selected
The validity of the selected contents must also be checked
against the extent that the contents coincide with the goals
and objectives of the curriculum
2. Suitability (Appropriateness): This has to do with the
match between the curriculum experiences and readiness
(background) of the learner/ age of the learners
• In order that effective learning takes place, the learner
should psychologically, physically and socially be ready
for an experience.
• Readiness has implication for meaning and motivation.

3. Feasibility- It is considering content in the light of the
time allowed, the resources available, the experience of staff,
the nature of political climate time, expertise, facilities
available, etc.
4. Comprehensiveness
Contents which are useful for the attainments of the objectives
must be contains balanced domains of contents ( knowledge,
skill and attitudes) that are aligned with the given objectives
5. Functionality/Relevance to life: The contents should be
related to the needs and interests to the society to their daily
life.
6. Appropriate balance between the scope and depth of the
contents: Scope is the coverage ( breadth of the curriculum),
depth refers the understanding level of the students . The two
must be balanced .

 The larger the coverage the lesser will be the depth ,
the revere is also true. Digging depth also creates
little coverage.
The Learning Experiences
a. Learning experiences are mental operations and exercises
of the learners that would enable them develop the
desired learning outcomes; that is the changes of
behaviors expected at the end of the various levels of
instruction.
b. Learning experiences are the key factors that shape the
learners’ orientations to the content and, ultimately, their
understanding of it.
c. Learning experiences are the interactions of the learners
with environment in their effort to acquire the contents.

 They are the means by which the educational objectives
are achieved.
 Learning experiences include the different techniques,
strategies and methods that are used for the purposes of
teaching and learning.
 Heart of the curriculum
Criteria for selecting learning experiences
The criteria used for the selection of contents can also be
use as a criteria for the selection of learning experiences
Organization of contents and learning Experiences
After the contents and learning experiences are selected,
they must be organized/arranged in a certain systematic
logical order.

Systematic arrangement of objectives, contents,
learning experiences and materials in a unified and
consolidated manner
This helps for a better and deeper understanding of the
contents and for the successful realization of the
educational objectives
There are two major approaches to curriculum
organization:
1. Horizontal organization
2. Vertical organization. of the organization

1. Horizontal organization
Arrangement and organization of contents and learning
experiences of different subjects taught in the same grade
level.
2. Vertical organization :
Arrangement and organization of contents and learning
exepriences of the same subjects taught in different grade
level.
Organizing principles
There are two organizing principle.
These are
1. Logical organization/ sequencing: where contents &
experiences are sequenced/ based on the some sort of order
of succession.

Or it is mainly based on the chronological sequencing ( time of
occurrence).
Example: History of education in Ethiopia, history subjects
It deals with the question “what is to follow what” the when of
the curriculum.
2. Psychological organization : where contents & learning
experiences are sequenced based on psychological principles of
students learning characteristics like
Simple to complex
Near to far
Known to unknown
Prerequisite learning
Concert to abstract
Whole to part

Criteria in Organizing Curriculum:
There are four criterions for organization of contents of the
curriculum.
1. Maintaining continuity: Continuity deals with the vertical
organization of the contents where single subject matter
learning experiences, which are repeated at a given interval
to achieve better retention of the same kind of skill or
concepts.
2.Establishing sequence – where curriculum elements
basically contents and leraning experiences are sequenced by
means of the logical sequencing and psychological
sequencing.

3. Establishing scope: Scope refers to the balance between
the breadth & latitude of the curriculum
4. Establishing integration: refers the horizontal
organization of the contents of the curriculum. It implies
coherence, unity, inter-relatedness, & connectedness of
similar subjects, basically for the primary school
curriculum.
3.5. Factors that influence curriculum design
The teacher's individual characteristics affect the way
the curriculum is presented to the students. Some
other factors that influence curriculum design are
application of technology, student's cultural background and
socioeconomic status, social forces, and also classroom
management.

Unit Four: Curriculum Implementation
4.1. The concept and Nature of Curriculum
Implementation
4.2. Approaches and determinants of curriculum
Implementation
4.3. Issues that are related with Ethiopian
Teacher education curriculum implementation
4.4. Factors affecting curriculum Implementation

4.1. The concept and Nature of Curriculum
Implementation
Concept of Curriculum Implementation:
What is Curriculum implementation?
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), curriculum
Implementation is
The process of putting a curriculum plan or translating curriculum
plans in to action.
It is the stage where the curriculum plan is translated in to reality
through instruction in the classroom setting .
A process of putting the developed curriculum into practice
/action under concrete school conditions.
Therefore, curriculum implementation can be seen as translating
the curriculum plan to the actual teaching and learning
environment.

Nature of Curriculum Implementation
For effective implementation of the Curriculum, the following
important aspects needs to be considered.
1. 1. Planning
 It’s necessary condition for implementation, which would
address the needs, changes necessary and resources required
for carrying out intended actions.
 It involves establishing and determining how to administer
policy that will govern the planned actions.
 Planning takes place prior to program creation or delivery.
Effective planning is a condition for effective implementation.
 Planning involves people, programs and organizations. They
interact and affect each other in different ways. For instance
people affect the implementation of programs and
organizations.

2. Communication
 Communication is the process of transmission of the facts,
ideas, values, feelings, and attitudes from one individual to
groups of people.
 Thus, the key players like teachers, designers, parents and
students should be communicated in planning,
implementation and evaluation of the curriculum
 It is a process of making people to get the right kind of
information on the program and expectations.
 The different communication channels need to be open so
that the program cannot be new to people.
 Making discussion with teachers, school directors, a
curriculum worker is an important activity in implementing
a curriculum.

3. Co-operation
 Curriculum implementation requires the involvement of
may people, it has not left only for the teachers.
Teachers are not only the curriculum implementers but
also curriculum designers.
 Is an interaction between all persons who are to be
involved with program implementation.
 Teachers’ full co-operation is required in practicing the
new ideas and programs that will find expression in their
classrooms. In many ways, teachers are the dominant
figures and their commitment depends heavily on how
active they have been in conceptualizing and developing
the new program.
 If teachers actively participate in curriculum
development, it makes implementation effective.

4. Support :
 This is the assistance, which must be provided by the
curriculum planners regarding programs or program
modifications to facilitate rapid implementation.
 Material, financial, technical etc supports would help
practitioners build self-confidence. It also helps those
who are affected by the changes.
 Support may include organizing and conducting in-
service training programs for teachers, administrators,
and other personnel.

4.2. Approaches and determinants of curriculum
Implementation
These refers to the philosophies/ perception of rte scholars
towards the curriculum implementation.
There are three major curriculum implementation
approach, these are:
1. The fidelity- approach
2. The Mutual adaptation approach
3. The Curriculum Enactment approach
1.The Fidelity- Approach
 The condition where Innovation is being implemented as
intended by developers.
 According to these assumptions, curriculum knowledge is
something being created outside of the classroom by the
experts/curriculum planners.

 No possibility for curriculum modification by the
implementers
2. The Mutual adaptation Approach
The condition where negotiation and flexibility in
implementation exist on the part of both designers and
practitioners
 There exists possibility for modification of the
curriculum by the implementers
3.The Curriculum Enactment Approach
 The condition where curriculum is created and
implemented by the teachers and students in the
classroom.
 Curriculum is viewed as educational experiences jointly
created by students and the teacher.

Characteristics of the enactment of the curriculum
implementation are:
1. No developed innovation exists before the classroom.
2. Innovation is created jointly by students and teachers.
3. Study how curriculum is shaped by the teachers and
students.
4. The role of the teacher is to create the curriculum with
students and develop the experiences of students.
4.3. Issues that are related with Ethiopian Teacher
Education Curriculum Implementation
1 Gaps in policy and strategy
2 Discrepancies/irregularities in policy
implementation
3 Difficulties with teacher training modalities

4. Problems in the Qualification, Deployment
and Performance of Teachers
5. Issues Concerning Incentive and Support for Teachers
6. Teacher licensing and re-licensing
7. Provisions for Advancement, Transfer and
Retention
8. Challenges Related to CPD and Teacher
Upgrading
9. Inadequacy in the Qualification of
Administrative Staff and Partners

4.4 Factors affecting curriculum Implementation
According Fullan (1991) identified three interactive factors
affecting implementation of the curriculum. These are:
1. Nature of change/ nature of curriculum innovation itself:
refers simplicity, complexity, clarity and quality of
curriculum.
Refers the attitude of the implementers as to the new program
2. The schools organizational structure/Human power: Refers the
role of directors, and the values and attitudes of teachers, students
and supervisors towards the curriculum implementation.
3. The circumstance under which teaching learning process takes
place/ input factors: refers inputs used for the effectiveness of the
curriculum implementations like chair, table library, textbooks,
laboratory and son on.

Unit Five: Curriculum Evaluation
5.1 The concept of curriculum Evaluation
5.2 Purpose of curriculum Evaluation
5.3 Types and process of Curriculum
Evaluation
5.4 Curriculum Evaluation Models

5.1 The concept of curriculum Evaluation
Concept of Curriculum Evaluation:
 Like most concepts in education, there is no consensus as
to the meaning of evaluation
 Evaluation is a process by which evaluators gather data in
order to made decisions..
 Evaluation is defined as the formal determination of the
quality effectiveness or value of a program, product, project,
process, objection or curriculum.
 Curriculum evaluation is the process of identifying its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in
implementation; to improve the curriculum development
process; to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and
the returns on finance allocated

In all the definitions the emphasis is on the systematic
process of collecting data on a program to determine its value
or worth, with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject,
or revise the program.
5.2 Purpose of curriculum Evaluation
The major purpose of curriculum evaluation is
To make decisions,
To render judgments about the value of whatever is
evaluated.
To draw conclusions,
To furnish /provide/ data that will support their decisions
regarding curriculum matters. decisions about individuals,
teachers and students;
Decisions about administrative regulations- actually judging
how good the school system is and how good individual staff
members are.

 To inform learners of their attainment
 To diagnose areas of strength and weakness
 To guide decisions about the students’ future
 To inform interested agencies of student competence
 To provide feedback into the instructional system
 To provide an operational target for the learner
 To license candidates for a profession or occupation
 To promote minimal educational quality
5.3 Types and process of Curriculum Evaluation
There are two broad areas of evaluation
They are:
1. Summative Evaluation
2. Formative Evaluation

Summative Evaluation:
The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end
of the implementation of the curriculum program. Summative
evaluation can occur just after new course materials have been
implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the effectiveness of the
program), or several months to years after the materials have
been implemented in full.
Formative evaluation:
Evaluation taking place while teaching learning process are in
progress

Phases/Steps of Curriculum Evaluation
1. Focus on the
particular
phenomena to
be evaluated
Identification of the program to be evaluated. Determine
what to evaluate and what design to use.
Determine the evaluation’ focus. Example, the total
school system, a particular school, one particular
subject, one grade level, etc.
2.
Identification
of objectives
Listing out the objectives to be achieved and Checking
how far the objectives set at the beginning are achieved
or not. Evaluators should identify spell out the
evaluation’s objectives and identify the constraints and
policies under which the evaluation will be conducted
3. Investigation
of the situation
4.Identification
of the
evaluation
instruments
5. Collection of
data
Refers behaviors of the students to be evaluated,
cognitive , affective or psychomotor
Selection of the appropriateness of an instruments
used for evaluation.
Identify the information to be collected, its source, and
the tools for collecting the data which may involve
interviews, giving of questionnaires, tests, collection of
documents and so forth.

6. Organization of
data
Data should be organized. (coding, organizing,
storing and retrieving the information)
7. Analyzing and
interpretation of
the data
The data collected is analysed and presented in the
form of tables and graphs. Statistical tools are often
used to compare significant differences and to
establish correlation or relationship between
variables.
8.Reporting of
Information
/findings
Reports are written describing the findings and
interpretation of the data. Based on the findings,
conclusion are made on the effectiveness of
curriculum implementation efforts.
Recommendations are made to reconsider certain
aspects of the curriculum.
9. Recycling the
information

5.4 Curriculum Evaluation Models
Several experts have proposed different models describing how
and what should be involved in evaluating a curriculum.
Models are useful because they help us define the parameters of
an evaluation, what concepts to be studied and the procedures
to be used to extract important data.
Numerous evaluation models have been proposed but five models
are the commonly used model in education as discussed here.
1. Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model)/
decision making model.
2. Stake’s Countenance Model/ Goal free / process model
3. Behavioural /objective model.

Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model)
Introduced by Daniel L. Stufflebeam (1971)
To decide whether to maintain, modify or eliminate the new
curriculum or programme, information is obtained by
conducting the following four types of evaluation:
 Context Evaluation
 Input Evaluation
 Process Evaluation
 Product Evaluation
Formative and Summative Evaluation in the CIPP Model
• Formative
• Evaluation
Context
Input
Process
• Summative
• Evaluation
Product

A. Context Evaluation
 Context evaluation involves studying the environment of the
program.
 Its purpose is to define the relevant environment and, portray the
desired and actual conditions pertaining to that environment, to
focus on unattended needs and missed opportunities, and diagnose
the reason for this.
 The evaluator defines the environment in which the curriculum is
implemented which could be a classroom, school or training
department.
 The evaluator determines the background in which the innovations
are being implemented.
 The techniques of data collection would include observation of
conditions in the school, background statistics of teachers and
interviews with players involve in implementation of the curriculum.

B. Input Evaluation
The second stage of the model, and is used to provide information
for determining how to utilise resources to achieve objectives of
the curriculum.
The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out
the curriculum are considered.
 Identify and assess system capabilities
 Alternative strategies
 Implementation design
 Budget, etc
At this stage the evaluator decides on procedures to be used.
Regarding method, the prevalent practices include committee
deliberations, appeal to the professional literature, the
employment of consultants and pilot experimental projects.

C. Process Evaluation
* Is it being done?
* It is the provision of periodic feedback while the curriculum
is being implemented.
 For implementing and refining implementation design
and procedures
 Process control
 Information to use in interpreting outcomes
D. Product Evaluation
a. Did it succeed?
b. Data is collected to determine whether the curriculum managed
to accomplish the set outcomes

c. Product evaluation involves measuring the
achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and
providing with information that will help to decide
whether to continue, terminate or modify the new
curriculum.
d. The decision may be to:
 To continue
 Terminate
 Modify
 Refocus

2. Goal free/Process Evaluation Model /
Stake’s Countenance Model
 Proposed by Robert Stake (1967) .
 This evaluation model is concerned with why things are
happed rather that measuring what has happened
 It tends to investigate the qualitative aspects of why things
are happened.
 It is involves subjective assessment of teachers and
students motivation and classroom observation and the like.
The model has three phases of curriculum evaluation:
1. The antecedent phase- refers conditions existing
prior to instruction that may relate to outcomes.
2. The transaction phase-
 Constitutes the process of instruction.

 Occurs between students & teachers, students &
students, and students & resource people.
 Also includes students’ interactions with
curriculum materials & classroom environments.
 Affected by time allocation, space arrangement,
& communication flow
3.The outcome phase- related to the effects of the
program.
 Includes student achievement & sometimes
attitudes, motor skills; impacts on teachers
effect on teachers’ perception of their
competence, and influence administrators’
actions.

Stake’s Countenance Model
Student & teacher
characteristics,
curriculum
content,
instructional
materials,
community
context
Communication
flow, time
allocation,
sequence of
events, social,
climate
Student
achievement,
attitudes, motor
skills, effect on
teachers and
institution
Antecedents Transactions Outcomes

Data may elucidate disparities between what was planned & what
was actually occurred
Source: Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. . (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
principle and issues
Curriculum
Development
Curriculum
Evaluation
Intended/Considered
antecedents
Logical
contingency
Considered
Transactions
Logical
contingency
Identified Outcomes
Congruency
Observed/Actual
antecedents involved
Empirical
contingency
Evaluation of
transactions
Congruency
Empirical
contingency
Attained outcomes
Congruency

 The model is useful in that it connects the intended
/planned antecedents, transactions and outcomes
with observed/ actual antecedents, transactions and
outcomes.
 The model depicts the relationship between what is
planned and what is enacted/performed and then
evaluated.

3.Behavioral/Objective Evaluation Model/Out
Come Evaluation Model
 This model was developed by the Ralph Tyler
 This type of evaluation model is used to evaluate the extent
to which the change / result is consistent with the objective
set at the beginning.
 This model is mainly used to evaluate the nature and
appropriateness of the curriculum elements stated by R. Tyler
• Tylers’ evaluation procedures
• Establish objectives
• Classify objectives
• Define objectives in behavioral terms

• Find situations in which achievement of objectives can
be shown
• Develop or select measurement techniques
• Compare data with behaviorally stated objectives.
4.The pronouns Discrepancy Evaluation Model
 Malcolm pronouns developed the model by combining
evaluation with systems – management theory. The four
elements of this model are:
1. determining program standards
2. determining program performance
3. comparing performance with standards
4.determining whether a discrepancy exists between
performance and standards.

5. Portraiture Model
 A portrait is a compressed ethnography in which the
evaluator attempts to capture the spirit of the school program
to tell not only what was done, but also to offer some thought
on the reasons behind actions.
 The portrait writer draws on his or her creative or aesthetic
abilities in addition to his or her scientific abilities.

Unit Six: Curriculum Change
6.1. Definition of Curriculum Change
6.2. Types of Curriculum Change
6.3. Resistance to Curriculum Change

6.1. Definition of Curriculum Change
 Curriculum change/ curriculum innovation can be
defined as any alteration in the any aspect of curriculum
element.
 Curriculum change ranges from single subject change to
the more comprehensive changes.
 The changes could be changes in the
objectives.,Contents, Learning expernce, methods,
illustrations and the like.

6.2. Types of Curriculum Change
McNeil (1990) categorized curriculum change as follows:
1. Substitution: One element may be substituted for another
already present. For example, the substitution of a new
textbook for an old one.
2. Alteration: This occurs when a change is introduced into
existing material in the hope that it will appear minor and
thus be readily adopted. For example, introducing new content
such as road safety in the primary school curriculum and use
of new materials such as the graphing calculator in
mathematics teaching.

3. Perturbations: These are changes that are disruptive but
teachers adjust to them within a fairly short time. For
example, the assistant principal changes the timetable or
schedule to allow for a longer teaching time
4. Restructuring: These are changes that lead to a modification
of the whole school system. For example, the introduction of
an integrated curriculum requiring team teaching, or
involving the local community in deciding what is to be
taught.
.

5. Value Orientation: These are shifts in the fundamental
value orientations of school personnel. For example, if the
new teachers who join the school place more emphasis on
personal growth of students than academic performance,
then the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of
the school changes. It should be realized that a particular
curriculum change may not exactly fit according to the
five categories given.
6.3 Resistance to Curriculum Change
Most of the time people do not like changes and
they are not ready to accept the changes. i. e
they resist the changes.

Why they resist:
1 Lack of ownership/lack of knowledge
 Individuals will not accept change if they consider it
coming from outside or imposed on them.
Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are
initiated from the outside which may be at the national,
state or district level.
2. People resist change because of the feeling of Inertia (the lack
of desire to change)/Status Quo (people are satisfied with
what they already have in place)/
3. People resist change because of rapidity of Change (always the
next new thing)

4 People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits
 If teachers are unconvinced that the new program will
make things better for students (in terms of learning) or
themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or
reward), they are likely to resist the suggested change.
5. People resist if they do not have the time to engage with
the change – Teachers find it difficult having to juggle
between bringing about change handling their current
responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change
activities, may run the risk of neglecting their current
responsibilities.
6. No financial or material support

7. People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope
with the changes
 It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have
the knowledge and skills to cope with the changes.
How to overcome resistance
Communication:
The key is ‘communication’. You have to explain to them the
question “Why”. You have to answer the Why, What, When, How
and Where questions related to curriculum change.
“the effectiveness of communication is not the ‘message
sent’ but of the ‘message received’”

Convince teachers who resist change because of lack of
ownership.
Involve teachers in exploring the relevance of the new
curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the
new skills needed to implement the curriculum. This
will get them to feel that they are an important part of
the curriculum implementation process.
Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the
training of teachers involved in implementing the new
curriculum.

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