As the tea plantation in hilly tracts are located in slopes, the management of
fertilizer regimes is somewhat challengeable due to leaching which in turn affect the
quality of tea soil. In light of this fact the present study was focused to determine the
quality of tea soil in terms of the evaluation of certain physical and biological
characteristics as influenced by various dosage of fertilizer applications. The impact of long
term nitrogen and potassium fertilization on biochemical characteristics and microbial
activities in tea soil has been analyzed in the present study. Different sources and rates of
nitrogen (ammonium sulphate and urea), and potassium (muriate of potash) were tested
at two soil depths (0
-
10 cm and 10
-
20 cm) and for two seasons (premonsoon and
monsoon). The acidic tea soil was further acidified with nitrogen application and the
extent of acidification varied with the fertilizer type and season. Soil respiration rates were
higher in 0
-
10 cm soils and were positively related to soil nitrogen and potassium
concentrations. Among the soil enzymes analyzed, urease activity exhibited different
trends in the two soil depths at different seasons. Urease activity tended to increase with
increasing potassium application rates, whereas higher cellulase activity was associated
with lower nitrogen application rates. This study clearly indicates that the soil quality
depends on the fertilizer application rates and season.
Classification of chemical fertilizers • organic fertilizer and inorganic fertilizer • Sources of Organic fertilizers • Inorganic fertilizers • Nitrogenous fertilizers • Phosphate fertilizers • Potassic fertilizers • Secondary major-nutrient fertilizers • Micronutrient Fertilizers • On the base of physiological effect • On the basis of physical forms • Granular fertilizers
Balanced fertilizer use refers to application of essential plant nutrients in optimum quantities and in right proportional through appropriate method and time of application suited for a specific crop and agronomic situation.
Aims of Balanced Fertilization:
a) Increasing crop yield,
b) Improving quality of the produce ,
c) Increasing farm income,
d) Correction of inherent soil nutrient deficiencies and toxicities
e) Maintaining or improving lasting soil fertility,.
f) Reduces environmental hazards
Email:chinafertilizermachine@gmail.com
Website:http://www.fertilizer-machine.net
Fertilizer is divided into inorganic fertilizer and organic fertilizer. No matter what the fertilizer is, applying fertilizer properly to crops helps promote crops growth and increase crop yield.
Fertilizers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves.
#Investigatory project on fertilizer
#fertilizer #manure #organic manure #artificial manure
A project based on Investigatory project on fertilizer .and
fertilizer and its advantages and disadvantages
made by ABHISHEK MISHRA SATNA
abhishek_mishra_09
dr.deepak mishra mandsaur
Classification of chemical fertilizers • organic fertilizer and inorganic fertilizer • Sources of Organic fertilizers • Inorganic fertilizers • Nitrogenous fertilizers • Phosphate fertilizers • Potassic fertilizers • Secondary major-nutrient fertilizers • Micronutrient Fertilizers • On the base of physiological effect • On the basis of physical forms • Granular fertilizers
Balanced fertilizer use refers to application of essential plant nutrients in optimum quantities and in right proportional through appropriate method and time of application suited for a specific crop and agronomic situation.
Aims of Balanced Fertilization:
a) Increasing crop yield,
b) Improving quality of the produce ,
c) Increasing farm income,
d) Correction of inherent soil nutrient deficiencies and toxicities
e) Maintaining or improving lasting soil fertility,.
f) Reduces environmental hazards
Email:chinafertilizermachine@gmail.com
Website:http://www.fertilizer-machine.net
Fertilizer is divided into inorganic fertilizer and organic fertilizer. No matter what the fertilizer is, applying fertilizer properly to crops helps promote crops growth and increase crop yield.
Fertilizers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves.
#Investigatory project on fertilizer
#fertilizer #manure #organic manure #artificial manure
A project based on Investigatory project on fertilizer .and
fertilizer and its advantages and disadvantages
made by ABHISHEK MISHRA SATNA
abhishek_mishra_09
dr.deepak mishra mandsaur
The Role of Soil Organisms and Functions in different Coconut based Multiple ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract—Sampling was done in wet and intermediate zones represented by the Walpita and Makandura research centers, respectively. Eleven land use systems were considered for the study; coconut mono culture (CM), bare land (BL) and coconut multiple cropping. Under coconut multiple cropping, nine different intercrops were selected separately for each zones. The treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates (n = 3). The experiment was conducted under mature baring coconut (>20 years) plantation. Soil Macrofauna was sampled using one transect with three replicates at each land use type using quadrate size (30×30cm) from 0-30 cm depth and visible organisms were handpicked and preserved in 75% alcohol. Dilute plate technique and Spread plate technique was used to determine the soil micro organisms’ density. Those techniques were used to cultivate the fungi and bacteria under 〖10〗^(-2) and 〖10〗^(-5) dilution level respectively.
Research identified 12 classes (Crusteacea, Oligochaeta, Hirudinea, Gastropoda, Acarina, Araneida, Scopionida, Chilapoda, Diplopoda, Amphibia, Reptelia) and 14 orders (Hemiptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Thysanura, Hymenoptera, Lepidotera, Orthoptera, Blattaria, Mantodea, Phasmida, Dermaptera, Isoptera, Siphonaptera, Thysanoptera) of soil organisms. Class insecta shows the high diversity with 14 orders. Colony forming unit (CFU) value of bacteria was higher than that of the fungi value. Findings of intermediate and wet zones’ studies suggested that coconut multiple cropping systems may have high diversity, abundance and functional role of soil organisms. Both zones studies suggested that coconut multiple cropping systems may increase soil moisture factor, respiration rate, biomass carbon content, organic carbon percentage, total nitrogen content, organic matter content and C:N ratio in 0-30cm depth other than the coconut monoculture systems. Overall data of two different zones indicated a significant positive correlation of soil organism diversity, abundance and their functional role with cropping systems. Those data can be used as a reliable basic bio indicator for payments for ecosystem services (PES). It supports to valorize the economic value of the ecological services returned by soil organisms.
There is a great contamination of water, soil, air, soil erosion, pest resistance
and extensive use of chemical fertilizers cause a turn to induce agriculture for
producing safe and clean products. For this purpose, by using natural materials like
algae on the beach, organic and environmentally friendly fertilizer was prepared. In
this investigation effect of Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer (SLF) of Ulva fasciata at
concentrations of 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% on some parameters of wheat
(Triticum aestivum var. chamran) has been investigated. Based on the results, above
algae can be used as a food supplement solution in the form of foliar spray at 2.5%
concentration with a significant increase in morphological and biochemical indices.
Improving Fruit Quality and Nutritional Value of Deglet Nour dates subjected ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
A field study was carried out during the two consecutive years (2015-2016) in the region of Biskra, southern east of Algeria on date palms of Deglet-Nour variety, grown in a salty environment. To study the combined effect of salinity and phospho-potassium fertilization on the quality and nutritional value of dates, two sites of different salinity, occupied by 54 date palms variety Deglet-Nour has been selected. The palms were fertilized by receiving three doses of potassium (0, 2 and 3 kg / palm) as potassium sulphate K 2 SO 4 (50%) combined with three levels of phosphorus (0, 1 and 2 kg / palm) as superphosphate (TSP 46%). The results revealed that applying 2 kg of potassium/palm in an excessively salty environment and 3 kg/palm in a low or unsalted environment associated to 1 kg of phosphorus in the two different cases of salinity of the two sites S1 and S2 improving the fruit traits.
The present study was carried on Abelmoschus esculentus (A. esculentus) by using the vermicompost. The decoction tea powder is wasted wet garbage and discarded on the dumping ground. It generally creates environmental pollution. This wet garbage can used as a good source of nutrients to the vegetable crop plants. The research is carried out by preparing vermicompost using 75% decoction tea powder and 25% mixture of black soil, cow dung, leaf litter and little vermicompost. The compost prepared by using decoction tea powder has increased concentration of necessary nutrients such as pH, minerals, organic carbon (O.C.), total phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium required for vegetable crop plants for its development. In present investigation by applying this compost, Electrical conductivity was decreased by 9.51%, O.C. 89.30%, total phosphorus 26.09%, potassium 1.0%, Mg and Na by 43.17% shows a significant increase in absorption. It is also observed that germination period decreases whereas height of stem, leaf area, flowering and fruits were developed earlier than control soil. Key-words- Decoction tea powder, Vermicompost, A. esculentus, Green revolution, Biological resistance
Effects of different irrigation and fertilization treatments on growth and yi...Premier Publishers
The experiment was implemented during the autumn season 2013, to study the effect of three methods of irrigation and fertilization on the development and yield of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv Rivera. Two methods of drip irrigation (putting the pipe at the bottom and at the top of furrows) and furrow irrigation with three types of fertilizers (chemical fertilizer at rate of 300 kg urea, 180 kg superphosphate triple, 240 kg potassium sulphate per hectare) and organic fertilizer at 30 kg.100 m2 -1 with half amount of the chemical fertilizers mentioned. The organic fertilizers were added in two ways: by scattering dry fertilizer and irrigation with fertilizer solution near plant roots. Results showed that the highest total water content of leaves was 86.665%, leaf area 2285 cm2, roots dry weight 13.60 g., average tuber weight 69.56 g., and the percentage of dry matter in tubers 19.26% was produced from applying organic fertilizer by irrigation, whereas the highest total tubers yield was 16.345 tons.ha-1 and water use efficiency 9.855 kg. ha-1 resulted from organic fertilizer by scattering method, also the treatment of drip irrigation by putting the pipe at the top of the furrows was superior in all studied parameters except the average tuber weight and total soluble solids compared with the other two treatments.
Identification and Evaluation of Antifungal Compounds from Botanicals for th...researchagriculture
Red rot is a devastating disease in sugarcane caused by fungus,
Colletotrichum
falcatum
. In this study, eighteen different botanicals were screened for
identifying effective antifungal compound against
C.
falcatum.
Among the plants
screened, 15 per cent aqueous leaf extract of
Psoralea corylifolia
alone inhibited 100
per cent growth of both mycelium as well as spore germination under
in vitro
conditions. The extract did not exhibit any inhibitory effect to the beneficial microbes
viz.
,
Pseudomonas fluorescens
,
Bacillus megaterium
and
Gluconacetobacter
diazotrophicus
which are normally used in sugarcane. The effective plant extracts
exhibiting 100 per cent antifungal activity was subjected to TLC, HPLC and GC
-
MS
analysis to identify the bioactive antifungal compound. It revealed the
presence of
7H
-
furo [3,2
-
G] (1) benzopyran
-
7
-
one as main bioactive compound which is thought to be
the intermediate of antifungal compound, 8
–
methoxypsoralen formed during
biosynthesis.
Pesticidal efficacy of crude aqueous extracts of Tephrosia vogelii L., Alli...researchagriculture
Cabbage aphid (
Brevicoryne brassicae
L.) is one of the most problematic
pests in smallholder vegetable production, causing significant yield losses in heavy
infestations. Current control strategy focuses on use of synthetic pesticides that
consequently lead to decimation of natural enemies, development of insect
resistance and resurgence and upset biodiversity. Botanical pesticides have been used
widely in smallholder farmers but not much documented literature exists on efficacy
of these products. A field trial was done to assess the efficacy of crude aqueous
extracts of
Tephrosia vogelii
,
Allium sativum
and
Solanum incanum
in controlling
Brevicoryne brassicae
in
Brassica napus
production. The trial was laid in a randomized
complete block design (RCBD) with five treatments replicated four times. The five
treatments used in the experiment were
T
.
vogelii
,
A
.
sativum
,
S
.
incanum
,
dimethoate and control. Wingless adult female aphids were inoculated three weeks
after transplanting of seedlings. Spraying and data collection were done weekly for
four weeks. Data was collected on aphid nymph and adult counts on the third leaf
from the aerial plant part of randomly selected plants from each treatment for
24 hours after the application of treatments and total plant fresh weight per each
treatment. There were significant differences (p<0.05)><0.05) on the yield of rape. It was concluded that
T. vogelii
,
S
.
incanum
and
A
.
sativum
aqueous crude extracts have some pesticidal
effects on aphid in rape
production.
Anther Culture of Pepper: Morphological Charactersitics of Fruits of Androgen...researchagriculture
The presented study describes the effectiveness of induced androgenesis in
in vitro pepper anther culture. The aim of this study was the establishment of
effective technology for induction of embryogenesis in pepper anther culture;
development of the embryos into plantlets; successful adaptation and acclimatization
of plantlets from sterile to greenhouse conditions, and the breeding process of
obtained androgenetic pepper lines in the plastic tunnel conditions. From 19 pepper
genotypes under investigation, 12 possessed potential for embryo formation in
anther culture. After the acclimatization and adaptation of plantlets, seed material
from four pepper genotypes were collected: Piran, Kurtovska kapija SR, Zlaten medal
SR and Féherözön. From the collected seed material, breeding processes of
androgenetic pepper lines was set up in plastic tunnel (from April
-
October
2007
-
2010). The pepper genotypes and androgenetic lines as their products differ
among themselves in the length of phonological phases, fruit type and fruit utilization.
Detailed study for characterization of morphological and production parameters of
the fruits was established that indicate to sort out lines with positive characteristics.
Uses of Ganoderma and other Mushrooms as Medicine in Oshana and Ohangwena r...researchagriculture
Basidiomycetes fungi, including
Ganoderma lucidum
, have a variety of uses
such as providing nutrition and medical remedies. The mushroom
G. lucidum
has
been used for a long time to cure liver problems, heart condition, asthma, cancer,
high blood pressure and arthritis. Recently, it has been associated with boosting
immune systems in HIV infected persons. It is for these reasons that the mushroom
has attracted a lot of attention leading to proposals of cultivating to increase supply
to the Southern African market. This study was initiated with the objective of
determining the uses of
Ganoderma
species and other mushrooms by local
communities in Oshana and Ohangwena Regions of northern Namibia. A survey was
conducted in the 10% households of each of the two northern regions of Namibia.
A questionnaire for face
-
to
-
face interviews was designed and applied to the two
Regions. The information survey has revealed that
Ganoderma
species have a variety
of other traditional uses including veterinary applications, while other five species of
mushrooms are used as nerve calming tonics and as treatment of skin infections. The
study found out that those interviewed in Ohangwena Region use more mushrooms
for medicinal purposes than those interviewed in Oshana Region.
Farmers’ Constraints In Rice Production In South - East Nigeriaresearchagriculture
The study was carried out in South East Nigeria to evaluate the
socioeconomic attributes of rice farmers and identify the major constraints facing the
rice enterprise in the area. The study relied mainly on primary data obtained by
questionnaire and interview administered on a total of 158 farmers across four states
that constitute the South East Agro
-
ecological area. Descriptive statistics was mainly
used to analyze the data collected. Findings show that farmers in rice production were
dominated by married, literate, male farmers. Major constraints to rice production
include poor extension contact, lack of finance, high cost of agrochemical, lack of
inorganic fertilizer, lack of processing facilities/ standard measure for rice, lack of
credit, and delay in supply of improved rice varieties. It was recommended that the
government should expose farmers to skills and knowledge required to overcome the
constraints in rice production through the development of extension
training/ teaching service, development of rural infrastructure, irrigation/storage/
processing facilities and credit supply at affordable interest rates.
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tam...researchagriculture
The present study has been aimed to explore the existing diversity of
butterflies from Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. A total of
19 genera and 23 species belonging to eight families were recorded. Out of these,
Nymphalidae were dominant with 7 species, followed by Papilionidae (5 species),
Pieridae (5 species), Danaidae (3 species), Acraeidae (1 species), Hesperiidae
(1 species), Lycaenidae (1 species), and Satyridae (1 species). Nymphalidae was found
to be the most dominant members with 30.43% followed by Papilionidae (21.74%),
Pieridae (17.39%) and Danaidae (13.04%). The minimum number of species found in
this habitat was from the families such as Acraeidae (4.35%), Hesperiidae (4.35%),
Lycaenidae (4.35%) and Satyridae (4.35%).
Technical Efficiency Differentials and Resource - Productivity Analysis amon...researchagriculture
The importance of soybean as a high protein, primary input in vegetable oil,
diary and feed industries is not in doubt. The technical efficiency and
resource
-
productivity of smallholder soybean farmers in Benue State, Nigeria were
estimated using cross sectional data obtained on 96 soybean farmers in the empirical
analysis. Results obtained with transcendental logarithmic (translog) stochastic
frontier model showed that the technical efficiencies varied widely from
0.254 to 0.999 with a mean of 0.718. This indicates that smallholder soybean
production was in the irrational stage of production (stage III) as depicted by the
returns
-
to
-
scale (RTS) of
-
2.848. Land and fertilizer were effectively allocated and
used, as confirmed by each variable having estimated coefficient value between zero
and unity, depicting stage II in the production curve. The productivity of the factors
can be enhanced by expanding the farm size at the existing level of labour so that the
variable of labour used could move from stage III to stage II in the production curve.
Labour saving resource and/or practices should be encouraged for productivity and
technical efficiency to be enhanced.
Factors affecting agricultural sustainable activities among wheat producersresearchagriculture
The sustainability of agricultural activities has been emphasized in many
studies. The main objective of this study is to determine the major factors affecting
the adoption of
sustainable activities among wheat producers in Marvdasht county in
Iran. The Survey research was used and the sample consists of 178 farmers that
selected with simple random sampling technique from 10 villages. Findings showed a
positive correlation between educational level, knowledge on sustainability, attending
on educational classes, participation in extension activities, social norms and
conducting sustainable agricultural activities. The regression findings showed that
age, educational level, knowledge on sustainability, agricultural income, total land of
family, attending on educational classes, participation in extension activities, social
norms, controllability of production factors were major variables to explain variability
in adoption of sustainable activities among wheat producers. The study has provided
recommendations to improve of adoption rate in sustainable agricultural activities.
Effect of seaweed liquid fertilizer (SLF) prepared from Sargassum wightii an...researchagriculture
The effect of Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer (SLF) of
Sargassum wightii
and
Hypnea
musciformis
were evaluated on the seedling growth and biochemical parameters of
the pulse,
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
(L). The seeds of
C. tetragonoloba
soaked in SLF
performed better when compared to the water soaked controls in terms of growth
and certain biochemical attributes. The seeds were sown in soil and SLF were added
to soil bed in four different concentrations separately (0.5%, 1%, 2% and 5% w/v).
C.
tetragonoloba
seedlings showed positive response at 0.5% concentration of aqueous
seaweed extracts in almost all the growth parameters studied. Similarly, a significant
increase in the content of photosynthetic pigments and biochemical constituents such
as soluble protein and starch was noted. The use of
Sargassum
and
Hypnea
extracts
proved to be effective.
Analysis of the effects of monetary and fiscal policy indicators on agricult...researchagriculture
The research was conducted to determine the effect of monetary and fiscal
policy indicators on Nigeria’s agricultural output. The output considered were mainly
cereals such as maize, sorghum, rice, millet and wheat while the monetary policy
indicators studied were inflation, money supply, interest rate and savings. Budgetary
allocation represents the fiscal component while inflation, savings, interest rate,
money supply represented monetary policy indicators. One of the fundamental
objectives was to examine the relationship between monetary and fiscal policy
indicators on agricultural output. Multiple regression was used as the main analytical
tool, and the result showed that money supply, budgetary allocation, interest rate
were 94%, 54% and 82% significant in the order above i.e. they had significant
relationship with output, while inflation and savings were not significant. The result
also revealed that within the period of study, agriculture contributed 28% to 35% of
the gross domestic product. Forestry and fisheries contributed the least, while crop
and animal sub sectors contributed the highest.
Contamination by trace metals (ETM) assessment of the plants populating the ...researchagriculture
The proportioning of the metal element traces by ICP
-
AES (Inductively
Coupled Plasma
-
Atomic Spectrometry Emission) in the mining residues of the dumps,
and the plants which populate the mine field of Zaida (High Moulouya), allowed to
highlight an important contamination as well as residues of the plants (
Stipa
tenuifolia
,
Reseda phyteuma
and
Matthiola longipetala
).
This contamination is materialized by strong concentrations in ETM (Lead,
Zinc, Copper and Cadmium).On the level of the plants the distribution of these ETM
(Lead, Zinc, Copper and Cadmium) is variable according to the vegetative species and
their bodies.
The simultaneous presence of the various elements as well induces an
increasing toxicity on the flora as on fauna and consequently on the local population.
Effects of storage conditions on viability, germination and sugar content of ...researchagriculture
Pearl millet (
Pennisetum glaucum
) is the most widely grown type of millet in
Africa and Asia. Pearl millet is well adapted to growing in areas characterized by
drought, low soil fertility, and high temperature. It grow well in soil with high salinity
or low pH.
In northern Namibia, pearl millet grains are stored in wooden, plastic and
cement containers for future consumption and also seeds for the next planting
season. This study looked at viability, germination and sugar content of pearl millet
grains in different containers after 0
-
16 months post
-
harvest.
Germination and
viability of pearl millet grains decreased as the period of storage increased, and this
was more obvious especially in cement and wooden containers. Viability in wooden
container ranged between 64
-
50% after 8
-
16 months post
-
harvest compared to
83
-
74% in plastic container and 30
-
12% in wooden container after a similar period of
storage. Pearl millet grains were found to contain high amounts of starch and sucrose
for the first four months and it decreases as storage time increase. As the duration
time of storing the pearl millet grain increased, the amount of starch and sucrose
decreased. This happened in all storage containers but there was a rapid loss in starch
and sucrose content in cement storage than in the other storage facilities.
Biodegradation of insecticidal compounds of Clausena anisata and Plectrant...researchagriculture
Essential oils of some aromatic plants are suggested in Northern Cameroon
as alternatives to hazardous pesticides having harmful effects on the consumer and
the environment. The active compounds of these essential oils are very volatile, easily
biodegradable. To be effective, treatments should be made with short interval and
regular time. This mode of use generates the accumulation of constituents of these
essential oils on the treated food and could limit food security and safety. The present
study aimed at evaluating the variation of the constituent’s quality of
Clausena
anisata
(Rutaceae)
and
Plectranthus glandulosus
(Lamiaceae)
essential oils and their
levels on food products according to time. In this way, samples of corn grains and
flour were treated with these essential oils and stored during 150 days. During this
storage, the persistent compounds present in these samples were extracted by
hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC/FID. The obtained
results showed that, essential
oils concentration decreases on food products according to the duration of storage,
with half
-
life times (IT50) of 24.16 and 34.61 days for
C. anisata
, and 25 and 38.75
days for
P. glandulosus
, respectively on grains and flour. At 150 days after the
treatment, there is no more that six constituents of
C. anaisata
and 3 of
P.
glandulosus
on the grains, and 10 and seven constituents on the flour respectively for
these two essential oils. The rates of these persistent constituents are more than 62.5
times lower than the toxic concentration observed from the day of treatment. At
these used doses, these constituents are not toxic to consumers.
Extension of grid soil sampling technology: application of extended Technolog...researchagriculture
Grid soil sampling technology is one of the most important information
technologies in agriculture. Application of these technologies is a way to understand
the extent of needed nutrient elements of soil. The purpose of this research is to
investigate the attitude and intention to the extension of grid soil sampling
technologies among agricultural specialists in Iran. A survey was used to collect data
from 249 specialists. The results using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) showed
that attitude to use is the most important determinant of intention to extension.
Attitude of confidence, observability and triability positively affect intention to
extension of these technologies. Perceived ease of use indirectly influences the
intention to extension through attitude to use.
Uptake and translocation of copper by mycorrhized seedlings Sterculia setige...researchagriculture
Pot culture experiments were established to determine the effects of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) (
Glomus fasciculatum
) on tropical gum tree
(
Sterculia setigera
Del.) grown in Copper contaminated soils. AMF and non
-
AMF
inoculated plants were grown in sterilized substrates and subjected to different
copper level (0, 200, 400,600, 800 mg kg
-
1
) concentrations. Root and shoot biomasses
of inoculated plants were significantly higher than those of non
-
inoculated. Copper
concentrations in roots were significantly higher than those in shoots in both the
inoculated and non
-
inoculated plants, indicating this heavy metal mostly accumulated
in the roots of plants. Copper translocation efficiency from root to shoot was lower in
mycorrhizal plants than in nonmycorrhizal ones at any Copper addition levels.
However, at high soil Copper concentrations, shoot Copper concentration of
inoculated plant were significantly reduced by about 50% compared to non
-
inoculated plants. These results indicated that AMF could promote tropical gum tree
growth and decrease the uptake of Cu at higher soil concentrations, thus protecting
their hosts from the toxicity of Copper contaminated soils.
Effect of elements of communication on effectiveness of poultry technology m...researchagriculture
This study was carried out to ascertain the effect of elements of
communications on effectiveness of poultry technology messages in Delta State,
Nigeria. A sample size of 180 poultry farmers and 46 extension agents were randomly
selected and used for the study. The findings showed that the poultry technology
messages communicated to farmers included climate change adaptation measures,
poultry waste management, bird flu prevention, prevention of predators and exotic
breeds of broiler and layer birds. All the elements of communication such as source
(sender), message, channel, and receiver had positive correlation with effectiveness
of poultry technology messages. There is a need to sustain the use of a combination
of channels, various elements in the communication process should be seriously
considered in message designs, its execution and extension agents. Poultry farmers
should be encouraged to improve on their role performance.
Assessment of aquaculture sediment for agricultural fertilizer supplement an...researchagriculture
Overuse of farmlands for crop production and rising cost of chemical
Overuse of farmlands for crop production and rising cost of chemical fertilizers have
grossly affected crop yield, production and food availability, and the search for
alternative use of locally available aquaculture
-
waste for fertilizer and soil
improvement can improve crop yield and food availability for the teaming population
of Nigeria and other sub
-
Saharan African countries. This research determined the pH,
Organic Matter, nitrate and phosphate qualities of 10 fishpond sediments for use as
agricultural fertilizer supplement and soil conditioner in Owerri, Nigeria. Samples
were subjected to standard physicochemical analysis. The pH ranged from 8.1
-
7.3,
organic matter from 46.6
-
61.3 g/kg, nitrate from 2.6
-
3.2 g/kg and phosphate from
0.05
-
0.1 g/kg. The higher the organic matter in the sediment samples, the higher the
recorded pH, nitrate and phosphate from the different ponds sediments. Organic
material, nitrate, phosphate and pH variation in the sediments might be due to
nutrients added to pond water from fertilizer, unconsumed feed, fish feaces and
metabolites. The nitrate and phosphate are major plant nutrients; organic matter can
be used as soil conditioner. The pH can determine the soil chemistry and availability
of the nutrients. The fish pond sediment can help to improve soil texture and soil
fertility, which may influence soil aeration, water, and nutrient
-
holding capacity and
root penetration by crops and increased crops growth and yield. It can serve as
alternative uses for fertilizer, soil conditioner, and its application as a waste
management approach in aquaculture for environmental sustainability.
Seed morphometric studies of some Kenaf ( Hibiscus canabinus ) accessions researchagriculture
Fifteen kenaf lines collected from kenaf and Jute Improvement Programme
of Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R.& T.) were subjected to digital
imaging analysis using USB microscope with digital imaging software (Veho™ UK) and
Vernier caliper to study the seed morphometric of available kenaf accession and the
possibility of using the morphometric data to determine variations between the
accessions. Ten seeds in four replicates of each seed lot were randomly selected and
measurement of the seed length, seed width, seed angle and seed thickness were
taken. The measurements were inputted and saved into Microsoft excel from where
the mean value of each parameters were calculated for each replicates. Data were
subjected to Analysis of variance, correlation analysis, principal component analysis
and clustering analysis. Variation exit among seed of kenaf accessions though they
had similar microscopic appearance features. Seed area, which was a function of seed
length and seed width contributed largely to the variation that exist between the seed
of kenaf accessions. Accession HC
-
583
-
31
2
, clearly distinguished itself from others and
therefore can be used in parent selection during breeding programmes. The inclusion
of this seed morphometrics trait in taxonomic description of kenaf is recommended to
increase the accuracy of morphological classification of kenaf.
Analysis of adaptation and extent of adaptation to climate variability among ...researchagriculture
The performance of agriculture is influenced by many factors including
climate variability. This factor is gradually being recognized as a key element in
shaping the form, scale, size and time
-
frame of agricultural productivity. Climate
variability is expected to have significant economic, environmental and social impacts
on various sectors of the Kenyan economy. In particular, rural farmers who depend on
major crops like maize and wheat for their livelihoods are likely to bear the brunt of
adverse impacts. The extent to which these impacts are felt depends in large part on
the extent of adaptation in response to climate variability. The key question here is,
“Why are wheat farmers in Rongai district facing continued decline in wheat output
despite evidence from both national and continental perspective that farmers have
adapted to climatic variability”. This study seeks to find out whether wheat farmers in
Rongai District have adapted to climate variability, and if that is the case, to what
extent. The study used multistage sampling procedure to select 150 wheat farmers in
Rongai district informed by both primary and secondary data sources. Data analysis
was done using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that indeed, farmers in the
area were able to recognize that temperatures have increased and there has been a
reduction in the volume of rainfall as well the vegetation cover. They were also able
to note changes in disease occurrence and pest infestation. The percentage of
farmers who perceived the changes was 62% while those who did not were 38%. The
percentage of farmers who perceived changes in temperature, precipitation and
vegetation cover were all equal. This indicates that the farmers were able to relate all
the three indicators of climate variability similarly.
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greatly disturbed by the heavy metals. The present study deals with the toxic effect of
sodium arsenate on morphological and molecular variation through SDS
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PAGE in 10
rice (
Oryza sativa
L.) varieties. Ten varieties of rice were grown under different
concentration (25 ppm, 50 ppm and 100 ppm) of sodium arsenate against control.
Morphological parameters like shoot length, root length, leaf area and biomass
showed marked differences among ten rice varieties. The proteins were separated
through SDS
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PAGE gel electrophoresis and calculated their molecular weight. The
morphological and molecular variations induced in rice varieties by arsenic stress
provide a new insight leading to a better understanding of the heavy metal response
in plants.
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Mammalian Pineal Body Structure and Also Functions
Influence of Long Term Nitrogen and Potassium Fertilization on the Biochemistry of Tea Soil
1. Influence of Long Term Nitrogen and Potassium Fertilization on the
Biochemistry of Tea Soil
Keywords:
Soil enzymes, urease, cellulase, Tea, Soil pH, nitrogen and potassium
fertilizers
ABSTRACT:
As the tea plantation in hilly tracts are located in slopes, the management of
fertilizer regimes is somewhat challengeable due to leaching which in turn affect the
quality of tea soil. In light of this fact the present study was focused to determine the
quality of tea soil in terms of the evaluation of certain physical and biological
characteristics as influenced by various dosage of fertilizer applications. The impact of long
term nitrogen and potassium fertilization on biochemical characteristics and microbial
activities in tea soil has been analyzed in the present study. Different sources and rates of
nitrogen (ammonium sulphate and urea), and potassium (muriate of potash) were tested
at two soil depths (0-10 cm and 10-20 cm) and for two seasons (premonsoon and
monsoon). The acidic tea soil was further acidified with nitrogen application and the
extent of acidification varied with the fertilizer type and season. Soil respiration rates were
higher in 0-10 cm soils and were positively related to soil nitrogen and potassium
concentrations. Among the soil enzymes analyzed, urease activity exhibited different
trends in the two soil depths at different seasons. Urease activity tended to increase with
increasing potassium application rates, whereas higher cellulase activity was associated
with lower nitrogen application rates. This study clearly indicates that the soil quality
depends on the fertilizer application rates and season.
124-135 | JRA | 2012 | Vol 1 | No 2
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and
reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jagri.info
Journal of Research in
Agriculture
An International Scientific
Research Journal
Authors:
Thenmozhi K1
, Manian S2
and Paulsamy S1
.
Institution:
1.Department of Botany,
Kongunadu Arts and Science
College, Coimbatore
641 029, Tamil Nadu, India.
2. Department of Botany,
Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil
Nadu, India.
Corresponding author:
Thenmozhi K.
Email:
thenmozhi_05@yahoo.co.in
Phone No:
+91- 9942474703.
Web Address:
http://www.jagri.info
documents/AG0029.pdf.
Dates:
Received: 14 Sep 2012 Accepted: 01 Oct 2012 Published: 06 Oct 2012
Article Citation:
Thenmozhi K, Manian Sand Paulsamy S.
Influence of Long Term Nitrogen and Potassium Fertilization on the Biochemistry of
Tea Soil.
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135
Original Research
Journal of Research in Agriculture
JournalofResearchinAgriculture An International Scientific Research Journal
2. INTRODUCTION
Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntz), a
perennial shrub, cultivated in acid soil yields one of the
most popular non-alcoholic beverage tea which is
consumed world-wide for its taste, aroma and health
effects. South India contributes about 24% of India’s
total tea production. Being a foliage crop, nutrient
requirements for commercial tea production are
particularly high. Nitrogen and potassium are the two
major nutrients of tea without which, commercial
production levels are difficult to achieve (Verma, 1993;
Verma et al., 2001). In south Indian tea gardens, nitrogen
and potassium fertilizers are always applied in
combination. There are three different sources of
nitrogen, namely ammonium sulphate, urea and calcium
ammonium nitrate. However, the choice of potassium is
confined to muriate of potash. This soil management has
potential impact upon soil biological quality. Nitrogen
fertilizers when used on a regular basis tend to acidify
soil. Further, long-term nitrogen fertilization has been
shown to affect the distribution and the amount of
organic carbon, soil microbial biomass and soil enzyme
activities (Darusman et al., 1991; Mc Andrew and
Malhi, 1992). Thus fertilizers as nutrient sources may
have beneficial influence on plants; however, there may
be adverse effects especially on microorganisms, as a
result of soil acidification.
Enzymes catalyze all biochemical reactions and
are an integral part of nutrient cycling in soil.
Investigations are often limited to few enzymes to show
that agricultural management practices affect enzyme
activity (Dick, 1994). A wide range of enzymes have not
been systematically investigated for their potential to
reflect short and long-term soil management effects in
relation to soil quality.
Although the effect of combined application of
nitrogen and potassium fertilizers on biochemical
characteristics of tea is well reported (Venkatesan and
Ganapathy, 2004; Venkatesan et al., 2005), its effect on
soil physico-chemical and biological characteristics are
scarce (Venkatesan et al., 2004). Increasing evidence
indicates that soil biological parameters may hold
potential as early and sensitive indicators of soil health.
Microbial characteristics of acid tea soils are reported to
be qualitatively different from normal acid soils
(Nioh et al., 1993). The objective of the study was to
evaluate the long - term impact of fertilizer application
on physico-chemical and microbiological properties of
selected soil in an experimental tea field receiving
fertilizer treatment since 1994. The selection of
biological response variables was based upon their
relationship to soil function. The soil microbial
community inhabits an environment responding to
physical, chemical or biological perturbation. Soil
biological properties were chosen to represent the soil
environment in which the organism must exist (soil
organic matter and moisture), the microbial community
itself (soil respiration) and biochemical activities of these
populations (soil cellulase and urease activity). These
biochemical activities were chosen to be a representative
of nutrients that influence plant production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental site and design
The experimental site was located at United
Planters Association of Southern India (UPASI) Tea
Research Foundation at Anamallais (10°30’N and
77°0’E, at 1050 m a.s.l.), southern India. The climatic
data collected from UPASI Tea Research
Institute - Meterological station, Valparai for the past 20
years showed that the site is experiencing an average
annual rainfall of 1100 mm and the temperature range of
11-29°C. The investigation was carried out in the long
term fertilizer trial plots (10m x 10m) established in 1994
using tea clone SA 6 with 100 bushes/ plot. The duration
of the study period was one year from Nov. 2010 to
Oct. 2011.
125 Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
3. Experimental setup
The experimental plots were setup to investigate
the impacts of nitrogen and potassium fertilization on
soil biochemistry and employed a randomized complete
block design with three replicate plots for the fifteen
treatments and unfertilized control plots. The fifteen
treatments included different levels of nitrogen and
potassium (150, 300 and 450 kg ha-1
y -1
) individually and
in various combinations.
Fertilizers were broadcasted in four split doses in
order to avoid volatilization and leaching. Nitrogen was
applied as 25% sulphate of ammonia (containing 20%
nitrogen) and urea (containing 46% nitrogen). Potassium
was applied as muriate of potash (containing 63%
potassium). Sulphate of ammonia was broadcasted at the
rate of 7.5, 15 and 22.5 kg ha-1
between February and
November. Urea at the rate of 17.25, 34.5 and
51.75 kg ha-1
was broadcasted between May and August.
Muriate of potash was applied at the rate of 23.63, 47.25
and 70.88 kg ha-1
along with sulphate of ammonia or
urea. Other nutrients (Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium,
Sulphur, Zinc, Manganese and Boron) were applied at
recommended rates and regular cultural practices were
carried out uniformly in all the plots (Verma and Palani,
1997).
Sampling
Soil samples were collected during premonsoon
(March) and monsoon (June) in 2011. Ten soil cores
(5 cm in diameter) at the depths of 0-10 cm (L1 layer)
and 10-20 cm (L2 layer) were randomly taken from each
plot and bulked. Field moist samples were passed
through a 2-mm sieve and divided into two equal parts.
One part was used for the determination of soil moisture,
pH, electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, exchangeable
potassium and organic carbon. The other part was stored
at 4°C prior to microbiological assays.
Soil analysis
Soil moisture content was determined after
drying at 105°C to a constant weight. Soil pH and
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135 126
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
Treatment
Moisture(%)pHEC(dSm-1
)
S1S2S1S2S1S2
L1L2L1L2L1L2L1L2L1L2L1L2
N0K011.00bc11.67de18.00def19.00de3.76f3.36h4.69b4.33d0.216i0.248h0.388e0.332e
N0K1506.67e-h10.00def19.67b-e21.00bcd3.86d3.65c4.79a4.66a0.277g0.309de0.294h0.304f
N0K3008.00de12.00cd19.00b-f21.67bc3.89c3.55d4.60c4.40c0.182j0.211j0.320g0.243i
N0K4505.67fgh9.67efg20.33bc21.00bcd4.32a3.82b4.59c4.47b0.178j0.320d0.239i0.214k
N150K010.00cd11.33de20.33bc22.67b3.55h3.43f4.25d4.38c0.324e0.249h0.335f0.256h
N150K15013.00ab14.00bc20.00bcd21.67bc3.68g3.47e4.26d4.30d0.328e0.225i0.338f0.228j
N150K30011.00bc15.67ab21.00b23.00ab3.43k3.39g4.23de4.33d0.360c0.223i0.346f0.257h
N150K45014.67a16.33a24.00a25.00a3.82e3.43f4.19f4.31d0.365c0.264g0.421d0.367d
N300K07.00efg10.00def18.67c-f19.67cde3.54h3.28i4.20ef4.25e0.245h0.269g0.287h0.299f
N300K1508.00de12.00cd17.67ef19.00de3.50i3.28i4.14g4.32d0.389b0.316de0.345f0.326e
N300K3005.00gh7.00hi18.33c-f18.00e3.46j3.22j3.86k4.40c0.280g0.352b0.491a0.249hi
N300K4504.67h6.00i19.00b-f19.33de4.06b3.97a4.07h4.31d0.304f0.308e0.337f0.420b
N450K07.00efg7.67ghi17.67ef20.00cde3.24m3.03k4.04h4.14g0.454a0.432a0.319g0.325e
N450K1507.00efg9.67efg18.00def18.00e3.43k3.36h3.98i4.20f0.214i0.266g0.343f0.288g
N450K3007.67ef9.00fgh19.33b-e19.67cde3.29l3.21j3.89j4.23ef0.343d0.339c0.473b0.382c
N450K4507.33ef9.00fgh17.00f20.00cde3.29l3.23j4.05h4.23ef0.380b0.287f0.452c0.501a
Table1Physicalcharactersofsoilfor0-10cmlayer(L1)and10-20cmlayer(L2)duringpremonsoon(S1)andmonsoon(S2)seasonsasinfluencedby
nitrogenandpotassiumfertilization.
Meansinacolumnforasoillayerfollowedbysameletter(s)donotsignificantlydiffer(P<0.05)accordingtoDuncan’sMultipleRangeTest.
4. electrical conductivity were measured using a digital pH
meter (Cyberscan 510, Singapore) and Conductivity
Bridge Meter (ORLAB 201, India). Total nitrogen was
measured using an autoanalyser (Skalar autoanalyser,
Netherlands) after Kjeldahl digestion and distillation.
Exchangeable potassium was extracted in ammonium
acetate solution (pH 7) and measured using a flame
photometer (GENWAY). Total organic carbon was
determined according to Nelson and Sommers (1982).
The titration method of Jaggi (1976) was used to
assess soil respiration. Urease activity was determined
according to Kandeler and Gerber (1988) with urea (1M)
as a substrate and the values were expressed as
µg N.g -1
dm.2h -1
using the calibration curve. Cellulase
activity was determined by incubation of soil samples
with water-soluble carboxymethylcellulose (Schinner
and Von Mersi, 1990) for 24 h at 50°C, pH 5.5. Low
molecular products and sugars resulting from the
enzymatic degradation of carboxymethylcellulose were
used for the quantitative reduction of potassium
hexacyanoferrate II to potassium hexacyanoferrate III,
which reacts with Fe (III) ammonium sulfate to form a
complex known as “Prussian Blue“, which is determined
photometrically at 690 nm. Cellulase activity is
expressed as µg GE g-1
dm 24 h -1
.
Statistical analysis
All data were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) (IRRISTAT, version 3/93) and Duncan’s
Multiple Range Test (P<0.05) was used to separate the
means when the differences were significant. Pearson’s
correlation analysis was used to assess the relationship
between soil and microbial variables. The latter analysis
was carried out in SPSS 9.0.
RESULTS
Soil properties
Soil in the experimental plots were clayey loam
and fertilizer application had a profound influence on
soil moisture. As expected, soil moisture was
127 Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
Treatment
Totalnitrogen(%)Exchangeablepotassium(mgkg-1
l)Organiccarbon(%)
S1S2S1S2S1S2
L1L2L1L2L1L2L1L2L1L2L1L2
N0K00.37hi0.29ef0.27fg0.24b155.21h101.83i162.65i107.43k4.83h3.26h3.99h3.55f
N0K1500.36i0.31de0.29efg0.14e248.45d186.88e228.20d197.43d5.24f3.69e4.06h3.63e
N0K3000.40def0.34abc0.24h0.19c259.83c223.59c217.85e157.78e5.07g3.39g4.37g3.00j
N0K4500.38fgh0.27g0.27g0.19c323.70b246.72b281.22b259.77b4.79h3.82d4.91e4.10c
N150K00.38ghi0.28fg0.28fg0.16de136.95j93.35j123.02m115.33i5.00g3.32g4.45g3.08i
N150K1500.47a0.31de0.29ef0.15e141.50i80.88l137.43k115.33i6.07a3.84d3.90i3.20h
N150K3000.38ghi0.28fg0.27g0.31a159.83g119.18g197.20f143.36f5.34e3.33gh5.27c3.39g
N150K4500.42bcd0.27fg0.38b0.30a442.71a313.23a370.01a265.10a5.04g3.80d5.85b3.86d
N300K00.42cde0.33bcd0.37b0.25b76.80n60.86n67.28p88.53m5.46d4.00c4.00h4.02c
N300K1500.42cd0.29efg0.36bc0.31a106.12l80.88l92.90o106.25l5.50cd3.78d5.19c4.96a
N300K3000.39fg0.35a0.36bc0.24b128.02k114.79h152.95j119.92h5.69b4.37a5.93b3.71e
N300K4500.43bc0.31de0.31de0.25b217.02f202.44d192.39g138.61g5.27ef3.59f4.64f3.28h
N450K00.44b0.35ab0.38ab0.16de80.88m73.80m101.76n55.10o5.46d3.94c5.03d3.82d
N450K1500.43bc0.32cd0.35c0.16de128.02k85.00k129.20l75.65n6.01a4.10b4.37g3.28h
N450K3000.40efg0.33abc0.33d0.24b128.02k80.88l187.37h110.77j5.56c4.29a5.19c4.33b
N450K4500.44bc0.34abc0.40a0.17cd223.59e180.88f270.01c201.76c6.08a4.35a6.08a4.29b
Meansinacolumnforasoillayerfollowedbysameletter(s)donotsignificantlydiffer(P<0.05)accordingtoDuncan’sMultipleRangeTest.
Table2Chemicalcharactersofsoilfor0-10cmlayer(L1)and10-20cmlayer(L2)duringpremonsoon(S1)andmonsoon(S2)seasonsasinfluencedbynitrogenand
potassiumfertilization.
5. significantly higher during monsoon and was affected by
fertilization. Similarly, the L2 layer was moister than the
L1 layer during both the seasons. For premonsoon period,
it ranged between 4.67-14.67% (L1) and 6.00-16.33%
(L2), respectively. On the other hand, it registered
17.00-24.00% (L1) and 18.00-25.00 % (L2) of mixture
for monsoon seasons (Table 1). Soil moisture was higher
in unfertilized soils during both seasons, but
progressively decreased with fertilizer application rates,
especially nitrogen (300 and 450 kg ha-1
).
A significant difference in soil pH was evident
between layers, seasons and most treatments. Soils
fertilized with potassium had higher pH values, the
exception being the 0-10 cm soils fertilized with 300 and
450 kg ha-1
of potassium. In contrast, soils fertilized with
nitrogen had the lowest pH values, and this drop in pH
was more evident in the top 0-10 cm soils than in 10-20
cm soils. Soil pH correlated positively with soil moisture
levels (r = 0.737; P<0.01) (Table 1, 3). Like pH, soil
electrical conductivity also exhibited significant
differences between treatments, seasons and layers.
During premonsoon, soils fertilized with nitrogen had
either almost similar or significantly higher electrical
conductivity values. In contrast during monsoon, soil in
nitrogen fertilized plots had decreased electrical
conductivity values compared to unfertilized plots
(Table 1).
Total soil nitrogen and exchangeable potassium
significantly differed between seasons, layers and among
treatments (Tables 2 and 3). The percentage nitrogen
content of the tea soil was higher during premonsoon
period (S1) when compared to the monsoon season (S2).
Similarly, the nitrogen content of L1 layer was higher
when compared to their respective L2 layer. Further the
application of nitrogen fertilizer at different doses
enhanced the available nitrogen in L1 layer
concomitantly (Table 2). The exchangeable potassium
level was comparable between premonsoon (S1) and
monsoon (S2) seasons and it fluctuated between different
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135 128
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
SourceofvariationdfMoisture(%)pHEC(dSm-1
)
Soilnutrients
Totalnitrogen(%)Exchangeable
potassium(mgkg-1
l)
Organiccarbon(%)
Treatment(T)15,12834.25**1549.14**74.64**49.53**1299822839.47**23.06**
Layer(L)1,128100.92**583.84**928.33**3078.56**1627574891.37**156.62**
Season(S)1,1283306.72**84721.78**1598.55**2385.60**911800.35**64.56**
TxL15,1281.39228.48**175.49**28.54**40106426.78**11.13**
TxS15,1287.16**379.04**275.21**37.60**50173100.71**21.50**
LxS1,1288.33**3351.83**266.86**2.052953962.16**140.98**
TxLxS5,1281.2474.64**196.65**29.49**14858168.87**16.02**
Table3F-Valuesofvarioussoilphysicochemicalcharactersasinfluencedbynitrogenandpotassiumfertilization.
**and***significantatP<0.01andP<0.001respectively.
6. treatment plots in the range of 55.1 and 442.7 mg/ kg dry
soil. However, the potassium content was comparably
higher in the L1 layer than the L2 layer. The application
of increasing doses of muriate of potash in the different
experimental plots resulted in the enhanced amount of
potassium content in both L1 and L2 layers (Table 2).
Generally nitrogen content in the 0-10 cm soils was
higher when compared to their respective 10-20 cm soils.
Exchangeable potassium was lower in nitrogen fertilized
soils than unfertilized soils. Soil nitrogen was
significantly (P<0.01) and negatively correlated to soil
moisture (r = -0.627) and pH (r = -0.518). In contrast,
soil potassium and pH had a significant and positive
correlation (r = 0.267; P<0.05). Organic carbon was
higher in the 0-10 cm soils than in 10-20 cm soils and
significantly varied with fertilization and seasons.
Generally, organic carbon was higher during
premonsoon than monsoon season. As organic carbon
was significantly and positively correlated to electrical
conductivity (r = 0.315; P<0.05) and nitrogen (r = 0.752;
P< 0.01), it was significantly and negatively correlated to
soil moisture (r = -0.334; P<0.01) (Table 3)
Soil respiration
Soil respiration tended to be higher in 0-10 cm
soils and significantly varied between seasons and
among treatments (Fig 1). During premonsoon,
maximum respiration rates were occurred in the 0-10 cm
soils and it was moderate (300 kg ha-1
) and high
(450 kg ha-1
) in potassium fertilized soils. In contrast,
maximum respiration rates in the 10-20 cm soils during
129 Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
mgCO2.g-1
dm.24
Fig. 1 Influence of nitrogen and potassium fertilization on soil respiration in the two soil layers (L1, L2)
during premonsoon (S1) and monsoon (S2) seasons. Points bearing same letter(s) for a season do not
significantly differ (P<0.05) according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
L1
L2
Treatments (Fertilizer dose in kg/ha/y)
7. premonsoon occurred in soils fertilized with high
nitrogen (450 kg ha-1
). During monsoon, maximum
respiration rates were occurred in the 0-10 cm soils of
treatment involving moderate potassium and high
nitrogen levels (K300 and N450). The respiration rates in
10-20 cm soils during monsoon in fertilized plots were
generally lower compared to unfertilized soils. Soil
respiration was significantly and positively correlated to
soil nitrogen (r=0.325; P<0.001) and potassium
(r =0.309; P<0.05).
Enzyme activities
Application of nitrogen and potassium either
individually or in combinations significantly affected soil
urease activity (Fig 2). Urease activity exhibited different
trends in the two soil layers at different seasons. High
urease activity occurred during premonsoon in 0-10 cm
soils and during monsoon in the 10-20 cm soils.
However, maximum urease activity occurred in soils
fertilized with higher doses of nitrogen and potassium
(N450 and K450) during both the seasons and layers except
in 0-10 cm soils where maximum urease activity was
detected in soils fertilized with low nitrogen and
moderate potassium (N150 and K300). Soil urease activity
was significantly and positively correlated to organic
carbon (r=0.265; P<0.05) and negatively to soil
respiration (r =-0.347; P< 0.01).
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135 130
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
Fig. 2 Influence of nitrogen and potassium fertilization on soil urease activity in the two soil layers (L1, L2)
during premonsoon (S1) and monsoon (S2) seasons. Points bearing same letter(s) for a season do not
significantly differ (P<0.05) according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
μgN.g-1
dm.2h-1
L1
n p
L1
L2
Treatments (Fertilizer dose in kg/ha/y)
8. Cellulase activity in the soil differed
significantly among treatments and between seasons and
soil layers (Fig 3). Cellulase activity was higher in 0-10
cm soils during premonsoon season. There was a greater
cellulase activity in both soil layers during both the
seasons at low nitrogen application rates (N150).
However, increasing concentration of nitrogen
fertilization affected cellulase activity to a greater extent
in the 0-10 cm soils than in 10-20 cm soils. A significant
(P<0.05) positive correlation existed between soil
cellulase activity and total soil nitrogen (r = 0.283).
DISCUSSION
Regular nitrogen fertilization of the acid
soil further acidified the soils. The acidification was
more in sulphate of ammonia application during
premonsoon, than in urea application during monsoon.
These are in accordance with the fact that regular
nitrogen fertilization tend to acidify soils (Khonje et al.,
1989; Darusman et al., 1991). Biederbeck et al., (1996)
indicated that application of anhydrous ammonia
lowered soil pH more than urea, which clearly indicates
varied levels of soil acidification by different nitrogen
sources. Furthermore, soil total nitrogen levels were
lower in plots during urea application than sulphate of
131 Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
Treatments (Fertilizer dose in kg/ha/y)
μgGE.g-1
dm.24h-1
Fig. 3 Influence of nitrogen and potassium fertilization on soil cellulase activity in the two soil layers (L1, L2)
during premonsoon (S1) and monsoon (S2) seasons. Points bearing same letter(s) for a season do not
significantly differ (P<0.05) according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
L1
L2
9. ammonia. Most of the broadcasted urea might have
leached out in heavy monsoon showers, as considerable
loss (10-25%) of nitrogen has been reported to occur due
to leaching or volatilization, if urea was not incorporated
into soil soon after its application (Yang, 1991; Byrnes
and Freney, 1995).
The physico-chemical complexity of soil
contributes significantly to underlying variability in
K+
levels with soil pH, moisture and chemical
composition, all having marked effects (e.g. Maathuis
and Sanders, 1996). In particular, acidic pH leads to
desorption of K+
from anionic binding sites in the soil,
and accounts for the tendency towards higher K+
levels
in acidic soils (Gassmann et al., 1993). The
exchangeable potassium increased with increasing
potassium application rates. It has been thought for a
long time that exchangeable potassium do not built up in
the tea soils of south India, because of the dominance of
Kaolinite clay mineral (Verma, 1997; Venkatesan et al.,
2003). However the presence of other minerals other
than Kaolinitic might contribute to the build up of
potassium in the soil (Venkatesan et al., 2004). In this
study, exchangeable potassium was not related to pH,
moisture or chemical composition of the soil. However,
application of nitrogen significantly reduced soil
potassium which ranged from 18-55% in the 0-10cm
soils and 0-38% in 10-20 cm soils. Application of
nitrogen is known to enhance the growth of tea plants.
An increased plant growth resulting from nitrogen
fertilization tends to increase potassium uptake from the
soil. Studies by The Chinese Tea Research Institute
showed that tea leaves contain 1.2-2.5% potassium (TRI,
1997). So a large amount of potassium is being mined
from the soil system by the tea plants as a result of
increased growth response to nitrogen fertilization
(Tchienkoua and Zech, 2004).
The existence of a significant positive correlation
between soil organic carbon and soil nitrogen indicates
an increasing soil organic carbon content with increasing
nitrogen application rates. This is in accordance with
Venkatesan et al., (2004) who has also reported higher
organic carbon in soils fertilized with nitrogen. Further,
Venkatesan et al., (2004), indicated that natural organic
carbon reserves of tea soil would be lost due to no or
inadequate supply of nitrogen because tea plants tended
to mineralize and absorb nutrients from organic matter in
the soil under nutrient stress conditions. In addition,
other studies indicate an increase in soil organic carbon
with increasing soil acidity (Willett et al., 2004; Kemmitt
et al., 2006). Results from this study tended to indicate
that soil pH and organic carbon were negatively
correlated to each other; but this relation is not
statistically significant. However, when the correlation
analysis was staggered between layers, a significant
negative correlation existed between soil pH and organic
carbon in 0-10 cm soils (r = -0.667; P<0.000), but not in
10-20 cm soils (r = -0.193; P>0.05). This varied relation
between soil organic carbon and pH between layers
could be attributed to soil nitrogen which tended to
strongly influence soil pH than soil potassium.
Correlation coefficient values for soil pH and nitrogen in
0-10 cm soils were higher (r= -0.773) compared to
10-20 cm soils (r = -0.734). These observations are in
line with results of Mc Andrew and Malhi (1992) who
reported an increase in soil organic matter with
increasing soil nitrogen.
Soil respiration rates were within normal ranges
reported for natural soils (Srivastava and Singh, 1991;
Maxwell and Coleman, 1995). Results from this study
tended to show that nitrogen and potassium fertilization
affected soil respiration in 0-10 cm soils more than in the
10-20 cm soils. Results of Chen et al., (2002), also
indicate that nitrogen fertilization reduced soil
respiration in 0-10 cm soils. The low respiration rate
with fertilizer application might be attributable to lower
availability of carbon with decreasing soil pH induced by
the nitrogen application (Thirukkumaran and Parkinson,
2000).
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 124-135 132
Thenmozhi et al.,2012
10. Soil urease activity has been reported to follow
changes in soil factors (Cookson and Lepiece, 1996). In
the present study, fertilizer application generally
increased soil urease activity. This is in agreement with
Venkatesan and Senthurpandian (2006), who also
reported an increased urease activity in fertilized tea
soils. However these observations contrasts the studies of
Dick et al., (1988) and Bandick and Dick (1999) where
soil urease activity was reported to decrease with
increasing application of ammonia based nitrogen
fertilizers. Since urease is a substrate inducible enzyme,
the application of fertilizers especially urea could have
resulted in higher urease activity. Further, the binding of
the urease to organic matter insulating itself from
denaturation and biological degradation by soil humic
polymers (Beri et al., 1978; Baligar and Wright, 1991)
could also attribute to increased level of urease as this
urease could be released from these protected sites by
acid sensitive ammonia oxidizers in response to
fertilization (Martikainen, 1985).
Cellulase activity was higher in the surface layer
(0-10 cm soils) than in the subsoils (10-20 cm soils) and
was positively correlated to soil organic matter.
Fertilization increased soil cellulase activity, which are
in accordance with studies of Aescht and Foissner
(1992).
CONCLUSION
Results from the present study revealed that long
term application of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers
affected soil nutrients and pH. Further these fertilizers
can interact with soil microbial communities in a variety
of ways and consequently disturb their normal
functioning. The use of nitrogenous fertilizers is
inevitable and an essential part of agricultural practices.
In the present study, we determined that long–term
application of higher doses of urea or ammonium
sulphate fertilizers had an inverse effect on pH, moisture,
soil respiration and enzyme activities. Therefore the
maintenance of low rates of nitrogen and potassium
(i.e., < 300 kg-1
ha-1
y-1
) are vital for preserving the soil
quality, as higher doses of nitrogen and potassium
(i.e., > 300 kg-1
ha-1
y-1
), adversely affects the soil quality.
However, the actual mechanisms behind these changes
are difficult to infer and needs further investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my sincere thanks to
Dr. N. Muraleedharan, Director, UPASI Tea Research
Institute, Valparai, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu,
India for kind permission to use their experimental plots,
which formed vital foundation for this work. I
acknowledge the invaluable help and support rendered
by Dr. S. Premkumar Samuel Asir, Dr. U.I. Baby and
Dr. S. Venkatesan, Dr. R. Selvasundaram, UPASI Tea
Research Institute, Valparai, Coimbatore District, Tamil
Nadu, India during the course of this study.
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