The document discusses two topics: 1) The impact of human activities on the environment and ecology, focusing on water pollution, land pollution, air pollution, energy use, and fisheries. 2) The hydrological cycle and precipitation. It describes how precipitation forms, the hydrological cycle of water moving through the atmosphere and environment, and infiltration and runoff processes. It aims to explain these environmental processes and the human impacts on water, land, air, energy resources, and fisheries.
Migrations may also be caused by climate disasters or slower but lethal environmental issues. Read to learn more. A study into the causes of modern slavery and human trafficking.
Human Trafficking Project - 1st Likeyo Kalyvia (Athens, Greece) and Liceo Classico-Linguistico "F. Petrarca" (Trieste, Italy)
Environmental degradation and it’s consequent effects by Green YatraGreen Yatra
The effect of Environmental degradation can seriously disrupt the balance of nature Pesticides can damage crops, Some pollutants can get into our systems indirectly from eating vegetables grown in contaminated soil. Reduced aesthetic appeal.
Incorporates brief details and steps to prevent numerous environmental issues persisting in today's world (such as various pollution, global warming, over population, waste disposal etc.)
,
environmental degradation and-development_in_bangl
,
poverty
,
ecosystem
,
environmental degradation
,
causes of environmental degradation
,
urbanization
,
transport activities
,
major environmental problems in bangladesh
,
role of iucn and greenpeace
Ecological balance,imbalance,Environment issues related to ecological imbalance,,Gaia Theory,Chaos Theory,Acid rain,Green house effect,Maintain Ecological Balance.
it is about the environmental issues done by human being and spoil our environment.
here i present some issues which is dangerous for our environment.
effects of this issues are also mentioned in ppt this ppt is useful for people who want a change in our environment.
Migrations may also be caused by climate disasters or slower but lethal environmental issues. Read to learn more. A study into the causes of modern slavery and human trafficking.
Human Trafficking Project - 1st Likeyo Kalyvia (Athens, Greece) and Liceo Classico-Linguistico "F. Petrarca" (Trieste, Italy)
Environmental degradation and it’s consequent effects by Green YatraGreen Yatra
The effect of Environmental degradation can seriously disrupt the balance of nature Pesticides can damage crops, Some pollutants can get into our systems indirectly from eating vegetables grown in contaminated soil. Reduced aesthetic appeal.
Incorporates brief details and steps to prevent numerous environmental issues persisting in today's world (such as various pollution, global warming, over population, waste disposal etc.)
,
environmental degradation and-development_in_bangl
,
poverty
,
ecosystem
,
environmental degradation
,
causes of environmental degradation
,
urbanization
,
transport activities
,
major environmental problems in bangladesh
,
role of iucn and greenpeace
Ecological balance,imbalance,Environment issues related to ecological imbalance,,Gaia Theory,Chaos Theory,Acid rain,Green house effect,Maintain Ecological Balance.
it is about the environmental issues done by human being and spoil our environment.
here i present some issues which is dangerous for our environment.
effects of this issues are also mentioned in ppt this ppt is useful for people who want a change in our environment.
We can work together to keep the environment clean so the plants, animals and people who depend on it remain healthy :) Working together, we can make pollution less of a problem and make our world a better place :D :)
You will see all the relevant topics Trans-boundary environmental problems; global pollution; economic significance of biodiversity;
economics of climate change; trade and environment, dispute resolutions
The world has experienced remarkable expansion and development in recent decades, which has greatly accelerated industrialization and urbanization. However, this advancement has come at a price: a dangerous increase in global pollution. The ecosystems of the globe, people's health, and the economy are all seriously threatened by global pollution in all of its manifestations. The complexities of global pollution will be examined in this essay, along with how it impacts both the environment and people.
the presentation is most importantly for the ones who are concerned for the environment and human impacts which are harming it. the presentation is making people aware about what they should do to the earth and what not
Environmental issues are any such issues created due to human activities and cause harm to the environment. Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical environment.
They relate to the anthropogenic effects on the natural environment, which are loosely divided into causes, effects and mitigation, noting that effects are interconnected and can cause new effects.
This powerpoint presentation deals with the types of coastal/marine pollution, its causes and sources, coastal pollution in the world, coastal pollution in India, causes of coastal pollution in India and its impacts.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Pile Foundation by Venkatesh Taduvai (Sub Geotechnical Engineering II)-conver...
impact of envrmnt on human human activities
1. CAREER POINT UNIVERSITY
KOTA
MINOR-2 ASSIGNMENT
SUBJECT- ECOLOGY ECOSYSTEM AND
WATER RESOURCE
SUBMITTED TO.
MANISH SIR
ASST. PROFESSOR
CPU,KOTA
SUBMITTED BY.
VIKAS KUMARVERMA
UID-K11768
B.TECH(ME)
SEM-5th
2. Table of content:
TOPIC 1 “Impact of human activities on Environment and ecology”
Introduction
Water pollution:
Land pollution:
Air pollution:
Energy
Fisheries:
TOPIC 2 “hydrological cycle and precipitation”
Introduction:
Hydrological cycle
Precipitation
Components of Hydrologic Cycle
3. TOPIC 1 “Impact of human activities on
Environment and ecology”
Introduction:
Every living thing has an impact on its environment. Therefore human impact on the
environment By simply existing, all species - including ourselves - will imprint their mark on
the world around them.
Environment polluted on these following various sector
Water pollution:
Perhaps the most obvious examples of a negative human impact on the environment is water
pollution. It's obvious we need water to survive but few people realize how much we need
and just how much is available. Consider these facts from the United Nations Environment
Programme:
Of all the water on Earth, only 2.5% of it is freshwater.
Of that 2.5%, less than 1% is available to us.
Humans each require up to 13 gallons (50 litres) a day of fresh water for drinking,
cooking and cleaning. This does NOT take into account the countless gallons of
water needed to grow food or care for animals.
70% of all freshwater usage goes to irrigation.
These chemical compounds contribute to acid rain. Since very little can live in an acidic
environment, acid rain has harmful effects on plants, animals, and aquatic life, as well as
humans and even buildings, statues or other objects. Acid rain also contaminates our limited
freshwater supply, and thus the cycle of water pollution continues.
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 45% of assessed stream miles, 47%
of assessed lake acres, and 32% of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were not clean
enough to support uses such as swimming or fishing. The following reasons and possible
sources for this include:
Sediments, pathogens and habitat alterations from agricultural activity and
hydrologic modifications (such as dams)
Excessive nutrients, metals and organic enrichment from agricultural activity and
atmospheric deposition (the movement of pollutants from one environment to
another, such as from water to air)
Heavy metals (primarily mercury), excess nutrients and "organic enrichment" from
industrial and municipal discharges ("treated" or untreated waste water released from
sewer plants and industrial factories into natural water sources)
4. These points listed above lead to a poisoned and uninhabitable environment for plants and
aquatic life, as well as affect land animals and humans reliant on these systems for survival
and other land-bound plant life in need of clean water for growth.
Land pollution:
Land pollution, the degradation of the Earth's surfaces and soil, is caused by human activity
and a misuse of natural resources. Causes of land pollution and degradation include:
Urban sprawl: Natural habitats are removed to make room for communities, usually
with inefficient or irresponsible planning. Urban sprawl generally results in a waste
of land area for unused development (such as excessive roads, decorative and unused
areas, etc).
Poor agricultural practices: Animal manure runoff from CAFO (Confined Animal
Feeding Operations), the use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, the
practice of growing monocultures (only one crop season after season) and the
deforestation required to expand farm land all contribute to degradation and
pollution.
Personal consumption: Our modern culture's desire to have more, bigger and better
"things", as well as our relationship to and habit of waste, has lead to stripping of the
land, excessive mining and pollution from industrial activities.
Industrial activities: The production of chemical-laden plastics, poor quality of
products, unethical practices (such as illegal dumping), and extreme emissions affect
both surrounding and far-reaching areas.
None of this takes into account illegal dumping, diminishing landfill space, litter,
overproduction of synthetic materials, radioactive waste and more.
All land pollution is caused by a human impact on the environment and thus can be averted
by our actions alone. Two of the necessary actions must be proper planning and proper usage
of natural resources.
For instances, animals could be taken out of CAFO and allowed to graze on mountainous or
wooded areas unsuitable for buildings or crops. Using organic and sustainable farming
techniques can eliminate our need for chemical applications. Clean energy, such as wind or
solar power, can slowly begin to replace coal or nuclear plants.
5. And as consumers we can lessen our human impact on the environment by demanding better
quality products, environmentally ethical practices from industries and a shift toward
sustainable energy.
Air pollution:
One bit of good news about our human impact on the environment is that air pollution is
lowering and air quality is increasing. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, since 1990 to 2008:
Ozone decreased 14%
Lead decreased 78%
Nitrogen dioxide decreased 35%
Carbon monoxide decreased 68%
Sulphur dioxide decreased 59%
However, 127 million people still live in areas that exceed quality standards. And some of the
quality standards are far from ideal, such as ozone. The question is: what amount of air
pollution is really okay? Shouldn't we be striving for technologies or practices that virtually
eliminate major polluters, such
Better public transit, electric cars, rail, and city planning etc to replace heavy
commutes, fossil fuels, air travel and un walk able communities
Retrofitting or otherwise upgrading existing factories with greener technologies such
as solar panels or air filtration systems
Removing animals from factory farms and raising them on natural diets and rotating
pasture to reduce methane emissions and pollution
The greatest human impact on the environment we can have is to vote with our pocket book
and our actions. By supporting companies that use greener technologies, we can start a trend
toward better solutions. By getting involved in community planning and zoning we can have
a global impact on a local level. And by buying less "stuff", eating less animal products and
sourcing our food from sustainable farms, we can spread the word that better solutions do
exist and they don't have to cater to mega-corporations and lobbyist pressure.
6. Energy:
Abandonment can be positive for nature, but this is not necessarily so. Land abandonment
increases the risk of fire in the Mediterranean Region, causes a decline of small-scale
landscape diversity and can also cause decrease in species diversity.
All energy types have potential impacts on the natural environment to varying degrees at all
stages of use, from extraction through processing to end use. Generating energy from any
source involves making the choices between impacts and how far those impacts can be
tolerated at the local and global scale. This is especially of importance for nuclear power,
where there are significant risks of radioactive pollution such as at Chernobyl.
Shell Oil Company and IUCN have jointly drafted environmental regulations for oil-
exploitation in Arctic areas of Siberia. Other oil companies are aware of this and use these
environmental regulations voluntarily for developing oil fields.
Into the future the sustainability of the natural environment will be improved as trends away
from damaging energy uses and extractive methods reduce and whilst real cost market forces
and the polluter pays principle take effect.
Fisheries:
The principle of the fisheries sector is towards sustainable catches of wild aquatic fauna. The
principle environmental impact associated with fisheries activities is the unsustainable har-
vesting of fish stocks and shellfish and has consequences for the ecological balance of the
aquatic environment. The sector is in a state of "crisis", with over capacity of the fleet,
overexploitation of stocks, debt, and marketing problems.
Growing aquaculture industry may increase water pollution in Western Europe, and is
appearing to be a rising trend in the Mediterranean and Central/East Europe.
7. TOPIC 2 “HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE AND
PRECIPETATION”
Introduction:
Most of the earth’s water sources get their water supplies from precipitation, which may fall
in various forms, such as, rain, snow, hail, dew etc. Rains no doubt, form the principal and
the major part of the resultant supplies. When rain starts falling, it is first of all intercepted by
buildings and other objects. When the rainfall rate exceeds the interception rate, water starts
reaching the ground and infiltration starts. This is the source of groundwater storage.
Hydrological cycle:
The movement of water on the earth's surface and through the atmosphere is known as the
hydrologic cycle. Water is taken up by the atmosphere from the earth's surface in vapour
form through evaporation. It may then be moved from place to place by the wind until it is
condensed back to its liquid phase to form clouds. Water then returns to the surface of the
earth in the form of either liquid (rain) or solid (snow, sleet, etc.) precipitation. Water
transport can also take place on or below the earth's surface by flow.
The hydrologic cycle is used to model the storage and movement of water between the
biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Water is stored in the following
reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, soils, snowfields, and groundwater. It
moves from one reservoir to another by processes like: evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, and groundwater
flow.
Water is stored in the atmosphere in all three states of matter. Water vapour in the
atmosphere is commonly referred to as humidity. If liquid and solid forms of water can
overcome atmospheric updrafts they can fall to the Earth's surface as precipitation. The
formation of ice crystals and water droplets occurs when the atmosphere is cooled to a
temperature that causes condensation or deposition. Four processes that can cause
atmospheric cooling are: orthographic uplift; convectional uplift; air mass convergence; and
radioactive energy loss.
Precipitation can be defined as any aqueous deposit, in liquid or solid form, that develops in a
saturated atmospheric environment and generally falls from clouds. A number of different
precipitation types have been classified by meteorologists including rain, freezing rain, snow,
ice pellets, snow pellets, and hail. Fog represents the saturation of air near the ground surface.
Classification of fog types is accomplished by the identification of the mechanism that caused
the air to become saturated.
The distribution of precipitation on the Earth's surface is generally controlled by the absence
or presence of mechanisms that lift air masses to cause saturation. It is also controlled by the
amount of water vapour held in the air, which is a function of air temperature.
In certain locations on the Earth, acid pollutants from the atmosphere are being deposited in
dry and wet forms to the Earth’s surface. Scientists generally call this process acid deposition.
If the deposit is wet it can also be called acid precipitation. Normally, rain is slightly acidic.
Acid precipitation, however, can have a pH as low as 2.3. Evaporation and transpiration are
8. the two processes that move water from the Earth’s surface to its atmosphere. Evaporation is
movement of free water to the atmosphere as a gas. It requires large amounts of energy.
Transpiration is the movement of water through a plant to the atmosphere. Scientists use the
term evapotranspiration to describe both processes.
In general, the following four factors control the amount of water entering the atmosphere via
these two processes: energy availability; the humidity gradient away from the evaporating
surface; the wind speed immediately above the surface; and water availability.
Agricultural scientists sometimes refer to two types of evapotranspiration: Actual
Evapotranspiration and Potential Evapotranspiration. The growth of crops is a function of
water supply. If crops experience drought, yields are reduced. Irrigation can supply crops
with supplemental water. By determining both actual evapotranspiration and potential
evapotranspiration a farmer can calculate the irrigation water needs of their crops.
The distribution of precipitation falling on the ground surface can be modified by the
presence of vegetation. Vegetation in general, changes this distribution because of the fact
that it intercepts some the falling rain. How much is intercepted is a function of the branching
structure and leaf density of the vegetation. Some of the water that is intercepted never makes
it to the ground surface. Instead, it evaporates from the vegetation surface directly back to the
atmosphere. A portion of the intercepted water can travel from the leaves to the branches and
then flow down to the ground via the plant’s stem. This phenomenon is called stem flow.
Another portion of the precipitation may flow along the edge of the plant canopy to cause
canopy drip. Both of the processes described above can increase the concentration of the
water added to the soil at the base of the stem and around the edge of the plant’s canopy. Rain
that falls through the vegetation, without being intercepted, is called through fall.
Infiltration is the movement of water from precipitation into the soil layer. Infiltration varies
both spatially and temporally due to a number of environmental factors. After a rain,
infiltration can create a condition where the soil is completely full of water. This condition is,
however, only short-lived as a portion of this water quickly drains (gravitational water) via
the force exerted on the water by gravity. The portion that remains is called the field capacity.
In the soil, field capacity represents a film of water coating all individual soil particles to a
thickness of 0.06 mm. The soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 mm (known as capillary water) can
be removed from the soil through the processes of evaporation and transpiration. Both of
these processes operate at the surface. Capillary action moves water from one area in the soil
to replace losses in another area (biggest losses tend to be at the surface because of plant
consumption and evaporation). This movement of water by capillary action generally creates
a homogeneous concentration of water throughout the soil profile. Losses of water stop when
the film of water around soil particles reaches 0.0002 mm. Water held from the surface of the
soil particles to 0.0002 mm is essentially immobile and can only be completely removed with
high temperatures (greater than 100 degrees Celsius). Within the soil system, several different
forces influence the storage of water.
Runoff is the surface flow of water to areas of lower elevation. On the micro scale, runoff can
be seen as a series of related events. At the global scale runoff flows from the landmasses to
the oceans. The Earth’s continents experience runoff because of the imbalance between
precipitation and evaporation.
Through flow is the horizontal subsurface movement of water on continents. Rates of through
flow vary with soil type, slope gradient, and the concentration of water in the soil.
Groundwater is the zone in the ground that is permanently saturated with water. The top of
groundwater is known as the water table. Groundwater also flows because of gravity to
surface basins of water (oceans) located at lower elevations.
The flow of water through a stream channel is commonly called stream flow or stream
discharge. On many streams humans gauge stream flow because of the hazards that can result
9. from too little or too much flow. Mechanical gauging devices record this information on a
graph known as a hydrograph. In the online notes there is a representation of a hydrograph
showing some of its typical features.
Oceans cover most of the Earth's surface. On average, the depth of the world's oceans is
about 3.9 kilometre. However, maximum depths can be greater than 11 kilometers. The
distribution of land and ocean surfaces on the Earth is not homogeneous. In the Southern
Hemisphere there is 4 times more ocean than land. Ratio between land and ocean is almost
equal in the Northern Hemisphere.
The planetary water supply is dominated by the oceans. Approximately 97 % of all the water
on the Earth is in the oceans. The other 3 % is held as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps,
groundwater, lakes, soil, the atmosphere, and within life.
Water is continually cycled between its various reservoirs. This cycling occurs through the
processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration,
sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. Table 1.2 describes the typical
residence times of water in the major reservoirs.
Precipitation
In cold air way up in the sky, rain clouds will often form. Rising warm air carries water
vapour high into the sky where it cools, forming water droplets around tiny bits of dust in the
air. Some vapour freezes into tiny ice crystals which attract cooled water drops. The drops
freeze to the ice crystals, forming larger crystals we call snowflakes. When the snowflakes
become heavy, they fall. When the snowflakes meet warmer air on the way down, they melt
into raindrops. In tropical climates, cloud droplets combine together around dust or sea salt
particles. They bang together and grow in size until they're heavy enough to fall
10. Look at the figure above. Sometimes there is a layer of air in the clouds that is above
freezing, or 32° F . Then closer to the ground the air temperature is once again below
freezing. Snowflakes partially melt in the layer of warmer air, but then freeze again in the
cold air near the ground. This kind of precipitation is called sleet. It bounces when it hits the
ground. If snowflakes completely melt in the warmer air, but temperatures are below freezing
near the ground, rain may freeze on contact with the ground or the streets. This is called
freezing rain, and a significant freezing rain is called an ice storm. Ice storms are extremely
dangerous because the layer of ice on the streets can cause traffic accidents. Ice can also build
up on tree branches and power lines, causing them to break and our lights to go out.
There is another kind of precipitation that comes from thunderstorms called hail.
Components of Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle can be subdivided into three major systems: The oceans being the major
reservoir and source of water, the atmosphere functioning as the carrier and deliverer of water
and the land as the user of water. The amount of water available at a particular place changes
with time because of changes in the supply and delivery. On a global basis, the water
movement is a closed system but on a local basis it is an open system.
The major components of the hydrologic cycle are precipitation (rainfall, snowfall, hale,
sleet, fog, dew, drizzle, etc.), interception, depression storage, evaporation, transpiration,
infiltration, percolation, moisture storage in the unsaturated zone, and runoff
Evaporation of water takes place from the oceans and the land surface mainly due to solar
energy. The moisture moves in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour which precipitates
on land surface or oceans in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc. A part of this precipitation
is intercepted by vegetation or buildings. Of the amount reaching the land surface, a part
infiltrates into the soil and the remaining water runs off the land surface to join streams.
These streams finally discharge into the ocean. Some of the infiltrated water percolates deep
to join groundwater and some comes back to the streams or appears on the surface as springs.