Old Testament Canon Formed by Consensus

Tanakh - Old Testament Canon
• Torah (Law) - Five Books of the Law
• Neviim (Prophets) - Twenty-one books including 12 prophets
• Kotviim (Writings) - Twelve books beginning with the Psalms

https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-tanakh-full-text

Early Lists of the Old Testament
• 100 BC - Septuagint Translation of most of the OT
• 50 BC - Targum Aramaic translation of most OT Books
• 95 AD - Josephus, Torah (5), Prophets (13), Writings (4)
• 100 AD - New Testament cites from most of the OT Books
• 400 AD - Latin Vulgate included all the OT Books
• 500 AD - Talmud lists all the OT Books (Bava Batra 14b)

NT Assumed An OT Canon
Luke
[God said] I will send them prophets and apostles, some of whom they will kill and
persecute,’ so that the blood of all the prophets, shed from the foundation of the
world, may be charged against this generation, from the blood of Abel to the blood
of Zechariah, who perished between the altar and the sanctuary. (Luke 11:49–51
ESV)
Jesus said: “These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that
everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms
must be fulfilled.” Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, and said
to them, “Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from
the dead, and that repentance for the forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his
name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem. (Luke 24:44–47 ESV)

1. Consensus Malachi last prophet
2. Consensus emerging what books were canonical
3. Consensus that inter testament books were not inspired

1. Consensus Malach last prophet

And laid up the stones in the mountain of the temple in a
convenient place, until there should come a prophet to shew
what should be done with them. (1 Macc 4:46 KJV)
Also that the Jews and priests were well pleased that Simon
should be their governor and high priest for ever, until there
should arise a faithful prophet; (1 Macc 14:41 KJV)
1. Consensus that Malachi was last prophet

1. Concensus that Malachi was last prophet
Talmudic and Mishnaic Testimony (200 - 400 AD)
• Baba Batra 14b
• Yoma 9b
• Sota 48b
• Tosefta 48b
• Sanhedrin 11:1

Consensus of Books of the Old Testament
Baba Batra 14b

§ The Sages taught: The order of the books of the Prophets when they are attached together is as
follows: Joshua and Judges, Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and Isaiah and the Twelve
Prophets. The Gemara asks: Consider: Hosea preceded some of the other prophets whose books are
included in the Bible, as it is written: “The Lord spoke first to Hosea” (Hosea 1:2). At first glance this verse
is difficult: But did God speak first with Hosea, and not with any other prophet before him? Weren’t there
many prophets between Moses and Hosea? And Rabbi Yoḥanan says: He was the first of four prophets
who prophesied in that period, and they were: Hosea and Isaiah, Amos and Micah. Accordingly, Hosea
preceded those three prophets; and the book of Hosea as well should precede the books of those
prophets.
The Gemara answers: Since his prophecy is written together with those of Haggai, Zechariah, and
Malachi in one book of the Twelve Prophets, and Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi were the last of the
prophets, he is counted with them. The Gemara inquires: But let the book of Hosea be written separately
and let it precede the others. The Gemara answers: Were it written separately, since it is small it would
be lost.
The Gemara further asks: Consider: Isaiah preceded Jeremiah and Ezekiel; let the book of Isaiah
precede the books of those other prophets. The Gemara answers: Since the book of Kings ends with the
destruction of the Temple, and the book of Jeremiah deals entirely with prophecies of the destruction,
and the book of Ezekiel begins with the destruction of the Temple but ends with consolation and the
rebuilding of the Temple, and Isaiah deals entirely with consolation, as most of his prophecies refer to the
redemption, we juxtapose destruction to destruction and consolation to consolation. This accounts for the
order: Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah.
(B Talmud Baba Batra 14b)

The baraita continues: The order of the Writings is: Ruth and the book of Psalms, and Job and
Proverbs; Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and Lamentations; Daniel and the Scroll of Esther; and
Ezra and Chronicles. The Gemara asks: And according to the one who says that Job lived in the
time of Moses, let the book of Job precede the others. The Gemara answers: We do not begin
with suffering, i.e., it is inappropriate to start the Writings with a book that deals so extensively
with suffering. The Gemara asks: But the book of Ruth, with which the Writings opens, is also
about suffering, since it describes the tragedies that befell the family of Elimelech. The Gemara
answers: This is suffering which has a future of hope and redemption. As Rabbi Yoḥanan says:
Why was she named Ruth, spelled reish, vav, tav? Because there descended from her David
who sated, a word with the root reish, vav, heh, the Holy One, Blessed be He, with songs and
praises.
The baraita now considers the authors of the biblical books: And who wrote the books of the
Bible? Moses wrote his own book, i.e., the Torah, and the portion of Balaam in the Torah, and the
book of Job. Joshua wrote his own book and eight verses in the Torah, which describe the death
of Moses. Samuel wrote his own book, the book of Judges, and the book of Ruth. David wrote the
book of Psalms by means of ten elders of previous generations, assembling a collection that
included compositions of others along with his own. He included psalms authored by Adam the
first man, by Melchizedek king of Salem, and by Abraham, and by Moses, and by Heman, and by
Jeduthun, and by Asaph,
(B Talmud Baba Batra 14b)

Septuagint
200 - 130 BC
Lists most of OT Books and
includes the Apocrypha
Papyri Rylands 458 (2nd Century BC)

3. Consensus that inter testamental books were not
inspired

What books came after Malachi?
• Pseudepigrapha (ex. Enoch)
• Qumran manuscripts (i.e. Dead Sea Scrolls).
• Hellenistic Writings (ex. Philo)
• Apocryphal (Deuterocanonical) writings - ex. 1, 2 &
3 Maccabees

• Philo - never claimed and was never recognized as
anything more than Greek commentary

• Dead Sea Scrolls - unique documents unknown to
Jewish sages (or ignored), and sectarian reflecting
beliefs and practices of the Essenes.

• Pseudepigrapha - never acknowledged as Scripture,
written after 400 BC, usually false authorship
(Pseudonyms) and unorthodox theologies

Book of Enoch
Then I saw the One to whom belongs the time before time. And
his head was white like wool, and there was with him another
individual, whose face was like that of a human being. His
countenance was full of grace like that of one among the holy
angels. And I asked the angel: “Who is this?” And he answered
me and said to me, “This is the Son of Man, to whom belongs
righteousness, and with whom righteousness dwells. (1Enoch
46:1–3 Charlesworth)
Then an angel came to me and greeted me and said to me, “YOU,
are the son of man, who was born in righteousness and upon
whom all righteousness dwells, the righteousness of the Ancient of
Days will not forsake you.” (1Enoch 71:14–15, Charlesworth)

Book of 2 Maccabees
[After the Maccabeean victory over Antiochus] Judas
[the Maccabee] perceived that there was great favor
laid up for those that died in righteousness, they were
considered holy and good. Therefore, Judas prayed
for the dead [martyrs], that they may be delivered
from sin [and be saved].
(2 Macc 12:45 KJV)

Early Lists of the New Testament
• 130 AD - Marcion the heretic lists the Pauline letters and version of Luke
• 150 AD - Justin Martyr Four Gospels, and Letters of the Apostles
• 170 AD - Muratorian fragment, all books except Heb, James, Peter
• 200 AD - Syriac translation, all books except 2 & 3 John, Jude, Revelation
• 250 AD - Origin Lists most of books
• 300 AD - Codex Vaticanus, all books except 1, 2 Tim, Titus, Philemon
• 330 AD - Codex Sinaiticus, all 27 books
• 367 AD - Athanasius, all 27 books of NT

How did they determine which
books to include?

Not Picked but Recognized
1. Can we identify the writer?
2. Was the writer an eyewitness?
3. Did the writer claim (and demonstrate) divine
inspiration?
4. Did the writer have authority in Israel/early church?
5. Was there a community of testimony around the
text?
6. Is the book historically accurate?
7. Is the book theologically orthodox?

Gospel of Judas (150 - 200 AD)

What about the books they skipped??

Stimson, Henry 1947. “The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb” in Harper’s Magazine
On July 28 the Premier of Japan, Suzuki, rejected the Potsdam ultimatum [calling
for unconditional surrender] by announcing that it was “unworthy of public notice.”
In the face of this rejection we could only proceed to demonstrate that the
ultimatum had meant exactly what it said when it stated that if the Japanese
continued the war, “the full application of our military power, backed by our
resolve, will mean the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese
armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese
homeland.”
For such a purpose the atomic bomb was an eminently suitable weapon. The
New Mexico test occurred while we were at Potsdam, on July 16. It was
immediately clear that the power of the bomb measured up to our highest
estimates. We had developed a weapon of such a revolutionary character that its
use against the enemy might well be expected to produce exactly the kind of
shock on the Japanese ruling oligarchy which we desired, strengthening the
position of those who wished peace, and weakening that of the military party.
Henry Stimson, former Secretary of War under President Truman

Truman, Harry. 6 Aug 1945. “Statement Announcing the Use of the Atomic Bomb at
Hiroshima”. NBC News.
Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima, an important
Japanese Army base. That bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of T.N.T. It had
more than two thousand times the blast power of the British "Grand Slam" which is the
largest bomb ever yet used in the history of warfare.
The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor. They have been repaid many
fold. And the end is not yet. With this bomb we have now added a new and revolutionary
increase in destruction to supplement the growing power of our armed forces. In their
present form these bombs are now in production and even more powerful forms are in
development. It is an atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of the basic power of the universe.
The force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who
brought war to the Far East…
We are now prepared to obliterate the Japanese! We shall destroy their docks, their
factories, and their communications. Let there be no mistake; we shall completely
destroy Japan. We shall eradicate their evil race. America will demonstrate to the world
that the Anglo-Saxon race is superior and that the Asian race must be subjugated to our
nation as the voice of democracy and Judeo-Christian superiority.
https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/august-6-1945-statement-president-announcing-use-bomb

Morrow, Edward R. 20 Sep 1945. “Interview with President Roosevelt”. See It Now.
Show #18. CBS News
Morrow: Mr. President, why don’t you begin by telling me the reasons for dropping the Atomic
Bomb.
Roosevelt: Well, at the time the chiefs of staff had drawn up plans for the invasion of the
Japanese main islands. They estimated the losses of approximately 100,000 men. Furthermore,
the ongoing bombing of Japanese cities would lead to approximate loses of 500,000 civilians.
Stimson and I believed that there needed to be a demonstration of the destructiveness of the
war.
Morrow: But there are those who argue that the allies might have provided a demonstration for
the Japanese, perhaps an uninhabited target.
Roosevelt: Yes, that is something I’ve heard. However, we felt that if the Japanese government
was able to reject the Potsdam resolution after the destructive bombing of their cities, then a
demonstration of the Atomic bomb’s ability would not have been persuasive either.
Morrow: Mr. President, do you believe that the use of this destructive weapon has ushered in a
new era of warfare and destruction of human life?
Roosevelt: Sadly, I do. I feel that once this weapon has not been used the world has entered a
new age—an atomic age. And with it will be new questions we all will need to ask.
Edward R. Morrow was the chief CBS war correspondent during World War II

Oppenheimer, Robert. February 1946. “The Open Mind” in The Atlantic.
We have unleashed a powerful new weapon, one capable of more
destruction than has ever been imagined. We now find ourselves in a
Cold War with the very nation we fought alongside over the last five
years. It is clear that the rules of war have changed. It is clear that the
rules of politics have changed. But have our values changed? For us we
seek a “Great Society”, one in which poverty may be eliminated, a society
of racial justice, and one in which there is justice for people of all colors.
Shall we not seek the same justice abroad? Shall we not seek the same
justice for those who are yellow, red, brown, and black? But this new
weapon, and this new Cold War threaten justice for by it the ability for
self-determination among emerging nations is limited. We must declare
firmly and with conviction: Black Live Matter, Yellow Lives Matter. The
voices of all those whose paths of self-determination have been
interrupted by the dawn of this nuclear age matter.
Robert Oppenheimer was the scientific director of the Manhattan Project during World War II

Gospel of Judas
180 AD
El Minya, Egypt (2005)

Chadwick A. 6 April 2006. “The Lost Gospel of Judas” Day to Day. NPR News

Jesus Reveals Everything to Judas
Jesus said, "[Come] and I'll teach you about the [mysteries that no] human [will] see,
because there exists a great and boundless realm whose horizons no angelic
generation has seen, [in] which is a [great] invisible Spirit, which no [angelic] eye has
ever seen, no heart has ever comprehended, and it's never been called by any
name.
"And a luminous cloud appeared there. And he (the Spirit) said, 'Let an angel come
into being to attend me.' And a great angel, the Self-Begotten, the God of the Light,
emerged from the cloud. And because of him, another four angels came into being
from another cloud, and they attended the angelic Self-Begotten. And said 48 the
[Self-Begotten], 'Let [a realm] come into being,' and it came into being [just as he
said]. And he [created] the first luminary to rule over it. And he said, 'Let angels come
into being to serve [it,' and myriads] without number came into being. And he said,
'[Let a] luminous realm come into being,' and it came into being. He created the
second luminary to rule over it, along with myriads of angels without number to offer
service. And that's how he created the rest of the realms of light. And he made them
to be ruled, and created for them myriads of angels without number to assist them.
https://www.gospels.net

"Now the crowd of those immortals is called 'cosmos' – that is,
'perishable' – by the father and the seventy-two luminaries with the
Self-Begotten and his seventy-two realms. That's where the first
human appeared with his incorruptible powers. In the realm that
appeared with his generation is the cloud of knowledge and the
angel who's called 51 [Eleleth …] After these things [Eleleth] said,
'Let twelve angels come into being [to] rule over Chaos and
[Hades]. And look, from the cloud there appeared an [angel] whose
face flashed with [fire] and whose likeness was [defiled] by blood.
His name was Nebro, which means 'Rebel.' Others call him
Yaldabaoth. And another angel, Saklas, came from the cloud too.
So Nebro created six angels – and Saklas (did too) – to be
assistants. They brought out twelve angels in the heavens, with
each of them receiving a portion in the heavens.

"And the twelve rulers spoke with the twelve angels: 'Let each of
you 52 […] and let them […] generation [… five] angels:
The first [is Yaoth], who's called 'the Good One.'
The second is Harmathoth, [the eye of fire].
The [third] is Galila.
The fourth [is] Yobel.
The fifth is Adonaios.
"These are the five who ruled over Hades and are the first over
Chaos.
"Then Saklas said to his angels, 'Let's create a human being after
the likeness and the image.' And they fashioned Adam and his wife
Eve,

Gospel of Thomas
100 AD
Cairo Geniza (1945)
Nag Hammadi MSS

Saying 50: Our Origin and Identity
Jesus said, "If they ask you, 'Where do you come from?' tell them, 'We've come from the
light, the place where light came into being by itself, [established] itself, and appeared in their
image.’ "If they ask you, 'Is it you?' then say, 'We are its children, and we're chosen by our
living Father.’ "If they ask you, 'What's the sign of your Father in you?' then say, 'It's
movement and rest.'"
Saying 70: Salvation is Within
Jesus said, "If you give birth to what's within you, what you have within you will save you. If
you don't have that within [you], what you don't have within you [will] kill you.”
Saying 77: Jesus is the All
Jesus said, "I'm the light that's over all. I am the All. The All has come from me and unfolds
toward me. Split a log; I'm there. Lift the stone, and you'll find me there.”
Saying 88: Angels and Prophets
Jesus said, "The angels and the prophets will come to you and give you what belongs to you.
You'll give them what you have and ask yourselves, 'When will they come and take what is
theirs?'" https://www.gospels.net

Shepherd of Hermas
2nd Century
Codex Sinaiticus

The Shepherd of Hermas
140 AD
But how that the lord took his son and the glorious angels as advisers concerning the inheritance of
the servant, listen.
6[59]:5 The Holy Pre-existent Spirit. Which created the whole creation, God made to dwell in flesh that
He desired. This flesh, therefore, in which the Holy Spirit dwelt, was subject unto the Spirit, walking
honorably in holiness and purity, without in any way defiling the Spirit.
6[59]:6 When then it had lived honorably in chastity, and had labored with the Spirit, and had
cooperated with it in everything, behaving itself boldly and bravely, He chose it as a partner with the
Holy Spirit; for the career of this flesh pleased [the Lord], seeing that, as possessing the Holy Spirit, it
was not defiled upon the earth.
6[59]:7 He therefore took the son as adviser and the glorious angels also, that this flesh too, having
served the Spirit unblamably, might have some place of sojourn, and might not seem to hare lost the
reward for its service; for all flesh, which is found undefiled and unspotted, wherein the Holy Spirit
dwelt, shall receive a reward.
http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/shepherd-lightfoot.html

Ninth Similitude, Chapter 1
After I had written down the commandments and similitudes of the
Shepherd, the angel of repentance, he came to me and said, "I wish to
explain to you what the Holy Spirit that spoke with you in the form of the
Church showed you. Because the Holy Spirit is the same as the Son of
God. For, as you were somewhat weak in the flesh, it was not explained
to you by the angel. When, however, you were strengthened by the
Spirit, and your strength was increased, so that you were able to see the
angel also, then accordingly was the building of the tower shown you by
the Church. In a noble and solemn manner did you see everything as if
shown you by a virgin; but now you see [them] through the same Spirit
as if shown by an angel. However, you must now learn everything from
me with greater accuracy. For I was sent for this purpose by the glorious
angel to dwell in your house for ever, that you might see all things with
power, entertaining no fear, even as it was before.”
http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/shepherd.html

My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?…[They]
mock me; they make faces at me; they wag their heads;
[and say] “He trusted in the LORD; let him deliver him; let
him rescue him“
(Psalm 22:1–15 ESV)
For dogs surrounded me; a company of evildoers
encircles me; they pierced my hands and feet.
(Psalm 22:16, ESV)

Masoretic Hebrew Text (900 AD)
like a lion my hands and my feet
Latin Vulgate (400 AD)
they pierced my hands and my feet
Greek Septuagint (100 BC)
Dead Sea Scroll 4Q88 (150 BC)

K’-ari (like a lion)
‫כאר‬
‫י‬
Karu (they pierced)
‫כאר‬
‫ו‬

Predicted coming of
An Historical King
Cyrus of Persia

Isaiah 44:24–45:1, ESV, 750
I am Yahweh…who says of Jerusalem, ‘She shall
be inhabited,’ and of the cities of Judah, ‘They
shall be [re]built, and…who says of CYRUS…he
shall fulfill my purpose’; saying of Jerusalem, ‘She
shall be built,’…This is what Yahweh says…to
CYRUS.

Isaiah
750 BC
• First Temple
• Kings Uzziah & Hezekiah
• Before Nebuchadnezzar
• Before the Babylonian Exile

Cyrus
580 —529 BC
• Declaration 538 BC
• Return of the Exiles

Isaiah Scroll, Israel Museum in Jerusalem, 350 BC

Foretold Destruction of
Jerusalem

O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the
prophets and stones those who are sent to
it…Behold, your house is forsaken. And I tell
you, you will not see me until you say:
“Blessed is he who comes in the name of the
Lord!”
(Luke 13:34–35 ESV)

When you see Jerusalem surrounded by
armies, then know that its destruction has
arrived…Flee to the mountains, and let those
who are inside [Jerusalem] escape.
(Luke 21:20–24 ESV)

The Christians in Jerusalem were commanded
by a prophecy before the war to escape and
go to the city of Pella in Perea. Those who
believed in Christ left Jerusalem…all Jesus’
followers abandoned Jerusalem and Judea.
(Eusebius, Church History 3.5.3, 4th Century)

Foretold the scattering
and regathering of the
Jews

And the LORD will scatter you among all peoples, from
one end of the earth to the other.
(Deut. 28:64 ESV)
Then the LORD your God…will gather you again from
all the peoples where the LORD your God has
scattered you… And will return you the land that your
fathers possessed.
(Deut. 30:3–5 ESV)

1400 BC Israel not yet conquered Canaan

• 70 AD Temple is Destroyed
• Jews are scattered
• Hebrew ceases
Jewish Diaspora

1880-1930 Jews return
1920 Hebrew reborn
1948 State of Israel
Jewish Regathering

But it was a self-
fulfilling prophecy!

Ben Gurion Golda Maier Chaim Weizmann Vladamir Jabotinsky
Theodore Herzl
Albert Einstein

The Bible
1. Reliably transmitted
2. Historically accurate
3. Books were recognized
4. Access to autographs
5. Evidence of supernatural
authorship

Old Testament Canon Formed by Consensus

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