Type IV hypersensitivity, also known as delayed type hypersensitivity, involves T cell-mediated immune responses that occur 1-3 days after re-exposure to an antigen. It results from the activation of CD4+ T helper 1 cells and macrophages by the antigen, causing the release of cytokines and chemokines that recruit more immune cells and lead to localized inflammation, edema, and tissue damage at the site. Common examples include contact dermatitis, infectious disease tests like the tuberculin test, and acute rejection of transplanted organs.
This slide share to study about the immunization, immunoglobulins or antibodies and vaccines for Undergraduate and postgraduate students in biological sciences
This slide share to study about the immunization, immunoglobulins or antibodies and vaccines for Undergraduate and postgraduate students in biological sciences
Staphylococcus aureus,a bunch of grapes
commonly found on the skin or in the nose of even healthy individuals
cause skin infections but can cause pneumonia, heart valve infections, and bone infections.
Describes the basic properties and mechanisms of T cells and B cells in maintaining Immune Response against foreign antigens or infections and covers the UG and PG portion of immunology.
Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that causes staphylococcal food poisoning, a form of gastroenteritis with rapid onset of symptoms. S. aureus is commonly found in the environment (soil, water and air) and is also found in the nose and on the skin of humans.
Hypersensitivity Update .pdf Immunology and Microosmanolow
Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through various lines of defence.
Staphylococcus aureus,a bunch of grapes
commonly found on the skin or in the nose of even healthy individuals
cause skin infections but can cause pneumonia, heart valve infections, and bone infections.
Describes the basic properties and mechanisms of T cells and B cells in maintaining Immune Response against foreign antigens or infections and covers the UG and PG portion of immunology.
Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that causes staphylococcal food poisoning, a form of gastroenteritis with rapid onset of symptoms. S. aureus is commonly found in the environment (soil, water and air) and is also found in the nose and on the skin of humans.
Hypersensitivity Update .pdf Immunology and Microosmanolow
Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through various lines of defence.
1. Type I Hypersensitivity:
Type I hypersensitive reactions are the commonest type among all types which is mainly induced by certain type of antigens i.e. allergens. Actually anaphylaxis means “opposite of protection” and is mediated by IgE antibodies through interaction with an allergen
Hypersensitivity can be defined as a state of altered immune response against an antigen characterized by hyper reactivity leading to immunopathology
Hypersensitivity reactions require a pre-sensitized (immune) state of the host.
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
Deep Leg Vein Thrombosis (DVT): Meaning, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Mor...The Lifesciences Magazine
Deep Leg Vein Thrombosis occurs when a blood clot forms in one or more of the deep veins in the legs. These clots can impede blood flow, leading to severe complications.
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
Telehealth Psychology Building Trust with Clients.pptxThe Harvest Clinic
Telehealth psychology is a digital approach that offers psychological services and mental health care to clients remotely, using technologies like video conferencing, phone calls, text messaging, and mobile apps for communication.
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair: A New Horizon in Nephrology" explores groundbreaking advancements in the use of R3 stem cells for kidney disease treatment. This insightful piece delves into the potential of these cells to regenerate damaged kidney tissue, offering new hope for patients and reshaping the future of nephrology.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
One of the most developed cities of India, the city of Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu and many people from different parts of India come here to earn their bread and butter. Being a metropolitan, the city is filled with towering building and beaches but the sad part as with almost every Indian city
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
2. • Hypersensitivity reactions are harmful antigen-specific immune
responses , occur when an individual who has been primed by an
innocuous antigen subsequently encounters the same antigen , produce
tissue injury and dysfuntion.
• It is defined as a state of exagerrated immune response to an antigen.
6. I)Type I Hypersensitivity
(Anaphylactic, Atopic)
• It is defined as a state of rapidly developing immune response to an
antigen to which the individual is previously sensitised.
• The response is mediated by humoral antibodies of IgE type or reagin
antibodies.
9. 1) Priming stage:last more than half a year
2) Activating stage
:
Cross-linkage Enzyme reaction
De-granulation of mast cell , basophil
10. 3) Effect stage
Immediate/early phase response Late-phase response
•Mediated by histamine
•Start within seconds
•Last several hours
•Mediated by new-synthesized
lipid mediators
•Take up 8-12hours to develop
•Last several days
11. Allergen Individual
Primary Generation
IgE
Adhesion
IgE binds to the FcRI on mast cell and basophilSecondary
Allergen binds to the IgE on primed target cell
Crosslikage of FcRI
Degranulate and release the biological mediators
Preformed granule mediators New generated mediators
Histamine Bradykinin Leukotrienes PAF Prostaglandin D2
Dilate capillaries,increase permeability, increase mucus secretion, contract smooth muscle
Systemic anaphylaxis Skin Respiratory tract Degist tract
Mechanism of type I hypersensitivity
13. The clinical features of systemic anaphylaxis include itching,
erythema, contraction of respiratory bronchioles, diarrhoea,
pulmonary oedema, pulmonary haemorrhage, shock and death.
Examples of systemic anaphylaxis :-
i) Administration of antisera e.g. anti-tetanus serum (ATS)
ii) Administration of drugs e.g. penicillin
iii) Sting by wasp or bee.
Systemic Anaphylaxis
14. Pathophysiology of Systemic
Anaphylaxis
• Systemic vasodilation and smooth muscle contraction leading to
severe bronchiole constriction, edema, and shock.
• Similar to systemic inflammation.
16. Localised Anaphylaxis
• Local anaphylaxis is common, affecting about 10% of population.
About 50% of these conditions are familial with genetic
predisposition and therefore also called atopic reactions
17.
18. Therapy of type I hypersensitivity
The basic 4A’s in the management of anaphylactic reaction :-
•Antihistaminic agent (benedryl 20-50mg)
•Adrenaline 0.5 ml of 1:1000 i.m
•Aminophylline 0.5mg i.m
•Airway oxygen
•Other---
Adrenaline inhalents
Hydrocortisone sodium succinate 100mg i.m
Cricothyrotomy for airway maintainance if required
19. • Cytotoxic reactions are defined as those reactions which cause injury
to the cell by combining humoral antibodies with cell surface
antigens; blood cells being affected more commonly.
Characteristic features
Primed IgG or IgM
+
Antigen or hapten on membrane
Injury and dysfunction of target cells
I)Type II Hypersensitivity
(Cytotoxic Reaction)
20. • Involves the antibody mediated destruction of cells.
• Can mediate cell destruction by activating the complement system to
create pores in the membrane of the foreign cell.
• Can also be mediated by Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated
Cytotoxicity (ADCC) where the Fc receptors bind to Fc receptor of
antibody on the target cell and promote killing.
22. 1. Surface antigen on target cells
Target cells: Normal tissue cell, changed or modified self tissue cells
Antigen : Blood group antigen,
Drug antigen,
Self-antigen modified
by physical factors or
infection
Common antigen,
Antigen-antibody complex
Mechanism of type II hypersensitivity
25. – Involves direct cytolysis of blood cells (red blood cells, leucocytes
and platelets) by combining the cell surface antigen with IgG or
IgM class antibodies.
– Complement system is activated resulting in injury to the cell
membrane.
– Cell surface is made susceptible to phagocytosis due to coating or
opsonisation from serum factors or opsonins.
A. CYTOTOXIC ANTIBODIES TO
BLOOD CELLS
28. Drug-Induced Hemolytic Anemia
• Where certain antibiotics can be absorbed nonspecifically to the
proteins on RBC membranes.
• Sometimes antibodies form inducing complement-mediated lysis and
thus progressive anemia.
• Disappears on withdrawal of the drug.
Autoimmune haemolytic anemia
Red cell injury is brought about by autoantibodies reacting with antigens
present on red cell surface.
29. Transfusion reaction
Hemolysis
• Mismatch of ABO blood
group
• Severely destroy RBC
• Repeat transfusion of
allogenic HLA
• Drug anaphylactic shock
: penicilline
Nonhemolysis
30. • autoantibodies reaction
• Example –
In myasthenia gravis, antibody to acetylcholine receptors of skeletal
muscle is formed which blocks neuromuscular transmission at the
motor end-plate resulting in muscle weakness
B. CYTOTOXIC ANTIBODIES TO
TISSUE COMPONENTS
31. • The examples of target cells killed by this mechanism are tumour
cells, parasites etc.
C. ANTIBODY-DEPENDENT CELL
MEDIATED CYTOTOXICITY
(ADCC)
32. 1.Anti -glomerular basement membrane nephritis
β-Hemolytic streptococcus and human glomerular basement membrane ----
cross reaction
Common antigen ---nephrotoxic nephritis
2. Super acute rejection in allogenic organ transplantation
3. Goodpasture syndrome
4.Hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism—receptor diseases
OTHER DISEASES
33. Type III reactions results from formation of immune complexes by
direct antigen-antibody (Ag-Ab) combination as a result of which the
complement system gets activated causing cell injury.
III) Type III Hypersensitivity
(Immune Complex Reaction)
Antigens causes immune complex mediated tissue injury
Exogenous
Antigens
Endogenous
Antigens
35. Depending upon the distribution & location
of antigens, Type III are of 2 types
LOCAL
Arthus reactions
SYSTEMIC
Circulating immune
complex disease or
Serum sickness
36. 1. Local : Arthus Reaction
• Localised inflammatory reaction, usually an immune complex
vasculitis of skin of an individual with circulating antibody.
• Large immune complexes formed due to excess of antibodies, which
precipitate locally in the vessel wall causing fibrinoid necrosis.
1. Local : Arthus Reaction
37. Injection of an Antigen:
• Can lead to an acute Arthus reaction within 4-8hours
• Localized tissue and vascular damage result from accumulation
of fluid (edema) and RBC (erythema)
• Severity can vary from mild swelling to redness to tissue necrosis
38. EXAMPLES :-
1. Injection of Antitetanus serum
2. Farmer`s lung (allergic alveolitis in response to bacterial antigen from
mouldy hay)
3. Insect bite:
• May first have a rapid type I reaction
• Some 4-8 hours later a typical Arthus reaction develops
4. Ulcer
5. Local Human Reaction :- Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
39. 2. Systematic : Circulating immune
complex disease or serum sickness
• Develops when antigen is intravenously administered resulting in
formation of large amounts antigen-antibody complexes and their
deposition in the tissues.
• These circulating complexes can’t be cleared by phagocytosis and can
cause tissue damaging Type III reactions
40. • Ag-Ab complexes are deposited at different tissue sites containing
basement membrane exposed to circulating blood.
• Following this deposition, there is acute inflammatory reaction &
activation of complement system with elaboration of chemotactic
factors, vasoactive amines & anaphylatoxins.
• This all causes type III hypersensitivity reactions
41. • Eg of circulating immune complex diseases are:-
– Skin diseases
– Various forms of Glomerulonephritis
• Other conditions caused by Type III-
1. Infectious Diseases
• Meningitis
• Hepatitis
• Mononucleosis
2. Drug Reactions
• Allergies to penicillin and sulfonamides
3. Autoimmune Collagen Diseases
• Systematic lupus erythematosus
42. 1. Mediated by specificallysensitised T lymphocytes produced in the
cell-mediated immune response.
2. The delay in the appearance of a type IV hypersensitivity reaction (2-
3 days) is due to the time it takes to recruit antigen-specific T cells and
other cells to the site of antigen localization and to develop the
inflammatory response.
IV) Type IV Hypersensitivity
(Delayed or Cell Mediated Reaction)
43. Antigen introduced to
the tissue modifies
extracellularand cell
surface proteins
Macrophages process
antigen, present to Th1
cells
Th1 effector cell
recognizes the antigen
and
Releases cytokines
which act on local
vascular endothelium
and
Further activateion of
macrophages (increase
in size, microbicidal
activity, & lysosome
content)
T cell recruitment (CD4
& CD8), fluid and
protein
Absorption by
interstitum (edema
45. Classical delayed
hypersensitivity
– Mediated by
sensitised CD4+
subpopulation on
antigen.
specifically
T
contact
cell
with
– These
receptors
antigen,
cells possess surface
which bind to the
resulting in cell injury
by slowlycharacterised
developing inflammatory response
46. T Cell-mediated cytotoxicity
CD8+ subpopulation of T lymphocytes are the cytotoxic T cells are
generated in response to antigens like virus-infected cells, tumour
cells and incompatible transplanted tissue or cells.
47. Mechanism of type IV hypersensitivity
Formation of effector and memory T cells
Inflammation and cytotoxicity caused by effector T cells
1) Inflammation and tissue injury mediated by CD4+Th1
Release chemokines and cytokines
Immune injury mainly caused by infiltration of mononuclear cells and
lymphocytes
2) Cytotoxicity of CD8+CTL
48. Antigen T cell
(CD4+,CD8+)
Secondary
contact
Induce
Primed Tcell
CD8+
Tcell
CD4+ Release
T cell
Cytokines
IL-2
TNF-
INF-
MCF
MIF
SRF
Directly kill target cells
Infiltration of
monocyte andM
Proliferation of Tcell
Exudation and edema
Cytotoxicity
Inflammation characterized by infiltration of M , monocyte,
And tissue injury
Mechanism of type IV hypersensitivity
51. Delayed Type Hypersensitivity (DTH)
DTH is a type of immune
response classified by Th1 and
macrophage activation that results
in tissue damage.
DTH can be the result of Chronic
infection or Exposure to some
antigens.
52. PHASES OF DTH RESPONSE
Induction
Or
Sensitization
Elicitation
Or
Effector
53. Occurs 1-2 weeks after primary contact withAg
• TH cells are activated and clonally expanded by Ag presented together with class II MHC
on an appropriate APC, such as macrophages or Langerhan cell (dendritic epidermal cell)
• Generally CD4+ cells of the TH1 subtype are activated during sensitization and designated
as TDTH cells
Sensitization Phase
54. Occurs upon subsequent exposure to theAg
TDTH• cells secrete a variety of cytokines and chemokines, which recruit and activate
macrophages
• Macrophage activation promotes phagocytic activity and increased concentration of lytic
enzymes for more effective killing
• Activated macrophages are also more effective in presenting Ag and function as the primary
effector cell
Effector Phase
55. 1) Infectious delayed type hypersensitivity
OT( Old Tuberculin ) test
2) Contact dermatitis :
Paint, drug red rash, papula, water blister, dermatitis
3) Acute rejection of allogenic transplantation and
immune response in local tumor mass
Common disease of type IV
hypersensitivity