Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon detectors forBoson- current transport at room temperature with GA/cm² current carrying capability
In vacuum nano electronics different electron sources are used. They usually consist of hot or cold zirconia, tungsten, or carbon tips, the latter being in diamond or nanotube form. Electron sources of a special composite of precious metal crystals, which are embedded in a fullerene matrix, were first developed in 1992 at the Research Institute of Deutsche Telekom FTZ in Darmstadt, Germany. With those very high emission current densities were achieved and were brought to applications. Outstanding room temperature conductivities were achieved with these nanogranular composite materials, and are presented here along with a model to explain the measured data,
Flame photometry is a technique that uses a flame to atomize samples and a spectrophotometer to measure the intensity of light emitted by the atoms. It works by introducing a liquid sample containing metal ions into a flame, which excites the metal atoms causing them to emit light of characteristic wavelengths. This allows for qualitative and quantitative analysis of metals in samples. The key components of a flame photometry instrument are the sample delivery system, burner and flame, monochromator, detector, and readout system. Common interferences include spectral and chemical overlap between elements.
Flame photometry is a technique used to determine the concentration of certain metal ions in a sample by measuring the intensity of light emitted from their atomic spectra when excited in a flame. The sample is nebulized in a burner flame, causing the metal ions to dissociate into atoms. These atoms emit light at characteristic wavelengths as they return to lower energy states. A monochromator filters the light, which is detected and the intensity measured, allowing quantification of metal ion concentrations in the original sample. Interferences can occur from overlapping emission lines or chemical interactions between ions. While simple and inexpensive, flame photometry has limitations in accuracy without standards and can be affected by interferences.
This document describes a method for coating metallic surfaces with thin films of nano-dimensional carbon to reduce secondary electron emission and suppress multipactor phenomena. Carbon nano-particles 1-10 nm in size are produced using a multispark discharge in ethyl alcohol. Thin films are then deposited on copper plates via two methods: evaporation of a colloidal solution or electrophoresis. Secondary electron emission measurements found that samples coated with films deposited by evaporation or long-time electrophoresis had lower maximum emission and higher first crossover energy compared to uncoated samples, inhibiting multipactor excitation.
This document discusses gas-filled tubes, which contain a small amount of inert gas at low pressure. There are two main types: cold-cathode tubes, which use natural electron emission, and hot-cathode tubes, which have a heated cathode. Gas-filled tubes can conduct more current than vacuum tubes because electron collisions ionize gas molecules, increasing the number of charge carriers. They also have less control over electron flow than vacuum tubes. Common applications include voltage regulation, rectification, switching, and radio frequency detection.
This document provides an overview of flame emission spectroscopy. It discusses the history, theory, principles, instrumentation, interferences and applications of FES. FES involves exciting sample atoms in a flame and analyzing the wavelengths of light emitted. It is used to determine concentrations of alkali and alkaline earth metals. The key components of FES instrumentation are the nebulizer, burner, monochromator, and detector. Spectral, ionization and chemical interferences can affect results and must be addressed. Calibration curves and internal standards are common methods used for quantitative analysis by FES.
Flame photometry is a technique that uses a flame to atomize samples and a spectrophotometer to measure the intensity of light emitted by the atoms. It works by introducing a liquid sample containing metal ions into a flame, which excites the metal atoms causing them to emit light of characteristic wavelengths. This allows for qualitative and quantitative analysis of metals in samples. The key components of a flame photometry instrument are the sample delivery system, burner and flame, monochromator, detector, and readout system. Common interferences include spectral and chemical overlap between elements.
Flame photometry is a technique used to determine the concentration of certain metal ions in a sample by measuring the intensity of light emitted from their atomic spectra when excited in a flame. The sample is nebulized in a burner flame, causing the metal ions to dissociate into atoms. These atoms emit light at characteristic wavelengths as they return to lower energy states. A monochromator filters the light, which is detected and the intensity measured, allowing quantification of metal ion concentrations in the original sample. Interferences can occur from overlapping emission lines or chemical interactions between ions. While simple and inexpensive, flame photometry has limitations in accuracy without standards and can be affected by interferences.
This document describes a method for coating metallic surfaces with thin films of nano-dimensional carbon to reduce secondary electron emission and suppress multipactor phenomena. Carbon nano-particles 1-10 nm in size are produced using a multispark discharge in ethyl alcohol. Thin films are then deposited on copper plates via two methods: evaporation of a colloidal solution or electrophoresis. Secondary electron emission measurements found that samples coated with films deposited by evaporation or long-time electrophoresis had lower maximum emission and higher first crossover energy compared to uncoated samples, inhibiting multipactor excitation.
This document discusses gas-filled tubes, which contain a small amount of inert gas at low pressure. There are two main types: cold-cathode tubes, which use natural electron emission, and hot-cathode tubes, which have a heated cathode. Gas-filled tubes can conduct more current than vacuum tubes because electron collisions ionize gas molecules, increasing the number of charge carriers. They also have less control over electron flow than vacuum tubes. Common applications include voltage regulation, rectification, switching, and radio frequency detection.
This document provides an overview of flame emission spectroscopy. It discusses the history, theory, principles, instrumentation, interferences and applications of FES. FES involves exciting sample atoms in a flame and analyzing the wavelengths of light emitted. It is used to determine concentrations of alkali and alkaline earth metals. The key components of FES instrumentation are the nebulizer, burner, monochromator, and detector. Spectral, ionization and chemical interferences can affect results and must be addressed. Calibration curves and internal standards are common methods used for quantitative analysis by FES.
The document describes the principles and components of flame photometry. Flame photometry measures the intensity of light emitted from metal atoms excited by the heat of a flame. When a solution is sprayed into the flame, the solvent evaporates and the metal atoms are excited and emit light of characteristic wavelengths. A mirror collects the light, which is separated into its wavelengths by a prism or grating. A photodetector measures the light intensities, which correspond to concentrations of metals in the original solution. Common applications include analyzing body fluids, soils, and water.
Горбунов Н.А., Государственная морская академия им. С.О. Макарова, г. Санкт-Петербург
Разработка плазменных технологий для прямого фотоэлектрического преобразования с сфокусированного солнечного излучения
The document discusses atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and its use in analyzing metals. It describes the basic components and process of AAS, including how samples are atomized in flames or graphite furnaces and the light absorption is measured. It also lists some common elements that are analyzed by AAS and applications in areas like environmental, food, and clinical testing.
This document provides an introduction to radiation technologies, including:
- Radiation technologies use electron beams, X-rays, and gamma photons to irradiate materials, finding applications in industry, medicine, and more.
- Adiabatic radiation technologies allow rapid irradiation using pulsed beams, maintaining material properties and enabling new material synthesis.
- Electron accelerators and X-ray sources are key equipment for radiation technologies, with pulsed systems enabling adiabatic processing and improved dose control.
Atomic absorption spectrometry is an analytical technique that measures the concentration of elements in a sample by converting them to gaseous atoms and measuring how much light of a specific wavelength they absorb. It works by vaporizing the sample using a flame or heating and passing light from a hollow cathode lamp of the element through it. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the element and is measured using a detector. It has various applications in fields like clinical analysis, environmental monitoring, pharmaceuticals, mining and more. The document provides details on how atomic absorption spectrometry works and the components involved like the light source, atomization methods, and calibration.
This document summarizes a presentation on solid electrolytes. It discusses how solid electrolytes exhibit ionic conductivity through mobile anions or cations, with maximum conductivity between 0.1-10 Ohm-1cm-1. Examples of solid electrolytes mentioned include AgI, β-alumina, and zirconia. Applications discussed include use in batteries, oxygen sensors, and solid oxide fuel cells. The proposed work is to synthesize and characterize Sr and Cu doped LaAlO3 as a potential solid electrolyte material.
This document discusses instrumentation and applications of spectrophotometry. It begins by describing how electromagnetic waves are created by vibrating electric charges, and how EM waves propagate through different materials at varying speeds. The document then covers the electromagnetic spectrum and various regions including visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. It discusses absorption of EM radiation by matter and how this relates to the colors we see. Finally, it provides an overview of common spectroscopic techniques and components of a basic spectrophotometer, including sources, wavelength selectors, sample containers, detectors, and readout devices.
The document describes the components and functioning of an atomic absorption spectrometer used for quantitative trace metal analysis. The key components are a flame, lamps to produce element-specific wavelengths of light, a detector, and a system to aspirate analyte solutions into the flame. Standards of known concentration are used to calibrate the instrument, which then analyzes samples by measuring light absorption at the element wavelength, correlating it to concentration via the calibration curve on a computer interface. The technique allows sensitive and specific determination of metals in solution.
The document summarizes a study that investigated how the photoluminescence quantum yield of lead selenide quantum dots is affected by increasing excitation energy. Three samples of PbSe quantum dots were synthesized with different diameters and characterized. It was found that the quantum yield decreased as the excitation energy increased, likely due to the formation of multi-exciton states within single quantum dots that lead to non-radiative Auger processes. The quantum yield was measured using an integrating sphere method and by analyzing absorption and emission spectra of the samples excited at different wavelengths. The results supported the expectation that higher excitation energies reduce quantum yield.
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses the principle that infrared spectroscopy involves absorption of infrared radiation which causes vibrational transitions in molecules. The instrumentation involves an infrared source, sample holder, and detector. Applications include identifying functional groups in organic molecules, determining drug formulations, and analyzing biological samples like urine.
The document discusses different types of molecular energies including electronic, vibrational, rotational, and translational energies. It then describes different molecular spectroscopy techniques based on the type of transition observed, including rotational, vibrational, electronic, Raman, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Key details about absorption spectroscopy and chromophores/auxochromes are provided. Molecular spectroscopy techniques analyze the spectra produced during transitions between different molecular energy levels to study molecular structure and interactions.
Implantation is a process used to dope semiconductors with impurities by accelerating ions into a solid target material. Ion implantation is advantageous over diffusion due to having no saturation limit. SRIM and TRIM software can be used to simulate ion implantation and predict values like ion range and damage. The thermal spike model describes how the energetic collisions from an ion create a brief high temperature region along its path, resulting in defect formation as the energy diffuses away. Observations from SRIM/TRIM include predicting the ion range, damage events within the target, and energy loss mechanisms during implantation.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique that uses the absorption of light to detect metal and metalloid elements in samples. It works by converting the sample into gaseous atoms using a flame or electrothermal atomizer and measuring the absorption of light at specific wavelengths, which is proportional to the concentration of the element. The main components of an atomic absorption spectroscopy instrument are a hollow cathode lamp, nebulizer, atomizer, monochromator, and detector. It is a reliable and simple method that can analyze over 62 elements and determine metal concentrations in samples.
In this work, I am showing a faithful atomistic process of estimating the oxygen migration energetics within BSCF, oxygen migration energy exhibit a strong dependence on different local atomic structures of this doped perovskites. In addition, DFT calculations exhibit the reason of cubic phase stability of this doped perovskite in variable oxygen concentration.
Doping of graphene and its application in photo electrochemical water splittingDr. Basudev Baral
Doping of graphene with heteroatoms like nitrogen and boron can effectively tune its electronic structure and properties. This makes doped graphene suitable for applications like photocatalytic water splitting. Nitrogen or boron doping creates a bandgap, allowing graphene to be used as a photocatalyst under visible light. Composites of nitrogen-doped graphene and other semiconductors like CdS have shown higher hydrogen evolution rates from water under visible light compared to the semiconductors alone. Perfectly designed, doped graphene with the proper bandgap could enable water splitting using only visible light from the sun.
A short lecture about Atomic Spectroscopy: Flame Photometry, Atomic Absorption, and Atomic Emission with Coupled Plasma (FP, AA and ICP-AES). Presented at 28.03.2011, Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, by Vasiliy Rosen, M.Sc.
Electron beam is the ability of high energy of electrons to alter the chemical structures of the molecules and its used to either modify or destroy hazardous organic molecules. The electron beam radiation processing is a chemical reaction caused in a material by radiation irradiation. In the radiation processing, electron beam and gamma rays are mainly used
Flame photometry is a technique that uses the characteristic colors emitted from flames to determine the presence of certain metal ions. When metal salts are aspirated into a flame, the metals are excited and emit light at characteristic wavelengths. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the concentration of the metal ion in solution. Common metal ions that can be analyzed using flame photometry include sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium.
This document describes the arc discharge method for synthesizing nanomaterials. It discusses how an arc discharge works by thermionic emission to vaporize electrode materials and form a plasma. The document provides details on the experimental setup, conditions for producing single-walled carbon nanotubes, and applications of the arc discharge method such as synthesizing carbon nanotubes, metal nanoparticles, and nanowires.
The document describes the principles and components of flame photometry. Flame photometry measures the intensity of light emitted from metal atoms excited by the heat of a flame. When a solution is sprayed into the flame, the solvent evaporates and the metal atoms are excited and emit light of characteristic wavelengths. A mirror collects the light, which is separated into its wavelengths by a prism or grating. A photodetector measures the light intensities, which correspond to concentrations of metals in the original solution. Common applications include analyzing body fluids, soils, and water.
Горбунов Н.А., Государственная морская академия им. С.О. Макарова, г. Санкт-Петербург
Разработка плазменных технологий для прямого фотоэлектрического преобразования с сфокусированного солнечного излучения
The document discusses atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and its use in analyzing metals. It describes the basic components and process of AAS, including how samples are atomized in flames or graphite furnaces and the light absorption is measured. It also lists some common elements that are analyzed by AAS and applications in areas like environmental, food, and clinical testing.
This document provides an introduction to radiation technologies, including:
- Radiation technologies use electron beams, X-rays, and gamma photons to irradiate materials, finding applications in industry, medicine, and more.
- Adiabatic radiation technologies allow rapid irradiation using pulsed beams, maintaining material properties and enabling new material synthesis.
- Electron accelerators and X-ray sources are key equipment for radiation technologies, with pulsed systems enabling adiabatic processing and improved dose control.
Atomic absorption spectrometry is an analytical technique that measures the concentration of elements in a sample by converting them to gaseous atoms and measuring how much light of a specific wavelength they absorb. It works by vaporizing the sample using a flame or heating and passing light from a hollow cathode lamp of the element through it. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the element and is measured using a detector. It has various applications in fields like clinical analysis, environmental monitoring, pharmaceuticals, mining and more. The document provides details on how atomic absorption spectrometry works and the components involved like the light source, atomization methods, and calibration.
This document summarizes a presentation on solid electrolytes. It discusses how solid electrolytes exhibit ionic conductivity through mobile anions or cations, with maximum conductivity between 0.1-10 Ohm-1cm-1. Examples of solid electrolytes mentioned include AgI, β-alumina, and zirconia. Applications discussed include use in batteries, oxygen sensors, and solid oxide fuel cells. The proposed work is to synthesize and characterize Sr and Cu doped LaAlO3 as a potential solid electrolyte material.
This document discusses instrumentation and applications of spectrophotometry. It begins by describing how electromagnetic waves are created by vibrating electric charges, and how EM waves propagate through different materials at varying speeds. The document then covers the electromagnetic spectrum and various regions including visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. It discusses absorption of EM radiation by matter and how this relates to the colors we see. Finally, it provides an overview of common spectroscopic techniques and components of a basic spectrophotometer, including sources, wavelength selectors, sample containers, detectors, and readout devices.
The document describes the components and functioning of an atomic absorption spectrometer used for quantitative trace metal analysis. The key components are a flame, lamps to produce element-specific wavelengths of light, a detector, and a system to aspirate analyte solutions into the flame. Standards of known concentration are used to calibrate the instrument, which then analyzes samples by measuring light absorption at the element wavelength, correlating it to concentration via the calibration curve on a computer interface. The technique allows sensitive and specific determination of metals in solution.
The document summarizes a study that investigated how the photoluminescence quantum yield of lead selenide quantum dots is affected by increasing excitation energy. Three samples of PbSe quantum dots were synthesized with different diameters and characterized. It was found that the quantum yield decreased as the excitation energy increased, likely due to the formation of multi-exciton states within single quantum dots that lead to non-radiative Auger processes. The quantum yield was measured using an integrating sphere method and by analyzing absorption and emission spectra of the samples excited at different wavelengths. The results supported the expectation that higher excitation energies reduce quantum yield.
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses the principle that infrared spectroscopy involves absorption of infrared radiation which causes vibrational transitions in molecules. The instrumentation involves an infrared source, sample holder, and detector. Applications include identifying functional groups in organic molecules, determining drug formulations, and analyzing biological samples like urine.
The document discusses different types of molecular energies including electronic, vibrational, rotational, and translational energies. It then describes different molecular spectroscopy techniques based on the type of transition observed, including rotational, vibrational, electronic, Raman, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Key details about absorption spectroscopy and chromophores/auxochromes are provided. Molecular spectroscopy techniques analyze the spectra produced during transitions between different molecular energy levels to study molecular structure and interactions.
Implantation is a process used to dope semiconductors with impurities by accelerating ions into a solid target material. Ion implantation is advantageous over diffusion due to having no saturation limit. SRIM and TRIM software can be used to simulate ion implantation and predict values like ion range and damage. The thermal spike model describes how the energetic collisions from an ion create a brief high temperature region along its path, resulting in defect formation as the energy diffuses away. Observations from SRIM/TRIM include predicting the ion range, damage events within the target, and energy loss mechanisms during implantation.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique that uses the absorption of light to detect metal and metalloid elements in samples. It works by converting the sample into gaseous atoms using a flame or electrothermal atomizer and measuring the absorption of light at specific wavelengths, which is proportional to the concentration of the element. The main components of an atomic absorption spectroscopy instrument are a hollow cathode lamp, nebulizer, atomizer, monochromator, and detector. It is a reliable and simple method that can analyze over 62 elements and determine metal concentrations in samples.
In this work, I am showing a faithful atomistic process of estimating the oxygen migration energetics within BSCF, oxygen migration energy exhibit a strong dependence on different local atomic structures of this doped perovskites. In addition, DFT calculations exhibit the reason of cubic phase stability of this doped perovskite in variable oxygen concentration.
Doping of graphene and its application in photo electrochemical water splittingDr. Basudev Baral
Doping of graphene with heteroatoms like nitrogen and boron can effectively tune its electronic structure and properties. This makes doped graphene suitable for applications like photocatalytic water splitting. Nitrogen or boron doping creates a bandgap, allowing graphene to be used as a photocatalyst under visible light. Composites of nitrogen-doped graphene and other semiconductors like CdS have shown higher hydrogen evolution rates from water under visible light compared to the semiconductors alone. Perfectly designed, doped graphene with the proper bandgap could enable water splitting using only visible light from the sun.
A short lecture about Atomic Spectroscopy: Flame Photometry, Atomic Absorption, and Atomic Emission with Coupled Plasma (FP, AA and ICP-AES). Presented at 28.03.2011, Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, by Vasiliy Rosen, M.Sc.
Electron beam is the ability of high energy of electrons to alter the chemical structures of the molecules and its used to either modify or destroy hazardous organic molecules. The electron beam radiation processing is a chemical reaction caused in a material by radiation irradiation. In the radiation processing, electron beam and gamma rays are mainly used
Flame photometry is a technique that uses the characteristic colors emitted from flames to determine the presence of certain metal ions. When metal salts are aspirated into a flame, the metals are excited and emit light at characteristic wavelengths. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the concentration of the metal ion in solution. Common metal ions that can be analyzed using flame photometry include sodium, potassium, lithium, and calcium.
Similar to Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon detectors forBoson- current transport at room temperature with GA/cm² current carrying capability
This document describes the arc discharge method for synthesizing nanomaterials. It discusses how an arc discharge works by thermionic emission to vaporize electrode materials and form a plasma. The document provides details on the experimental setup, conditions for producing single-walled carbon nanotubes, and applications of the arc discharge method such as synthesizing carbon nanotubes, metal nanoparticles, and nanowires.
This document discusses the electron emission effect of carbon nanotubes and some of its applications. When a small electric field is applied parallel to a nanotube, electrons are emitted from its ends. This field emission effect can be used in flat panel displays and vacuum tube lamps. Carbon nanotubes also have potential applications in batteries, fuel cells, electromagnetic shielding, and as sensors for detecting gases. Adding carbon nanotubes to materials like polypropylene and aluminum can significantly increase their tensile strength, making nanotubes promising for composite reinforcement.
The document summarizes the arc-discharge method for synthesizing carbon nanotubes. In the arc-discharge method, a plasma is generated between two graphite electrodes in an inert gas atmosphere by applying a voltage. Parameters like gas pressure, electrode material/purity, distance between electrodes, cooling, and current/voltage determine the structures formed. Single-walled nanotubes are produced when metals like iron and nickel are added to the anode along with sulfur, which acts as a surfactant. The arc-discharge method can produce high-quality multi-walled and single-walled carbon nanotubes for applications in electronics, batteries, solar cells, and more.
Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon that have a nanostructure that is a hollow cylinder of graphene. There are two main types: single-walled nanotubes consisting of a single layer of graphene and multi-walled nanotubes containing multiple layers of graphene. Carbon nanotubes are synthesized using methods such as arc discharge, laser ablation, and chemical vapor deposition. They are characterized using techniques like scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Carbon nanotubes have remarkable mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties that make them promising for applications in materials science, electronics, and other fields.
This document discusses different types of electron emission from metal surfaces. There are four principal types: thermionic emission, where heating provides the energy for electrons to overcome the work function; field emission, where a strong electric field pulls electrons from the surface; photoelectric emission, where light energy is transferred to electrons; and secondary emission, where high-velocity electrons striking the surface knock out more electrons. Thermionic emission is described in more detail, including the Richardson-Dushman equation that relates emission current density to temperature and work function, and examples are provided to calculate emission currents and determine metal work functions.
This document discusses different types of electron emission from metal surfaces. Thermionic emission occurs when heat is applied to a metal, increasing the kinetic energy of electrons and allowing them to overcome the surface barrier. Common thermionic emitters discussed are tungsten, thoriated tungsten, and oxide coatings, with their respective work functions and operating temperatures listed. The Richardson-Dushman equation describes how emission current density increases exponentially with temperature but depends on the work function of the emitter material.
Principles of Electronics chapter - IIAmit Khowala
This document discusses electron emission from thermionic emitters. It describes the process of thermionic emission where heating a metal provides electrons with enough energy to overcome the surface barrier and be emitted. Common thermionic emitters mentioned are tungsten, thoriated tungsten, and oxide coated cathodes. Thoriated tungsten has a lower work function than pure tungsten, allowing emission at lower temperatures. Oxide coated cathodes operate at even lower temperatures but cannot withstand high voltages. The Richardson-Dushman equation governs thermionic emission current density as a function of temperature and work function.
This document describes simulations done using COMSOL Multiphysics to design an optimal extraction tube for an electron beam emitted from a plasma focus device. The simulations aimed to determine a material that would shield the electron beam from electromagnetic forces within the device while maintaining electrical safety. Simulation results showed that a steel tube provided adequate shielding, but steel is not electrically safe. A design using a steel tube with an outer Delrin coating was found to both shield the electron beam and maintain electrical safety, making it the optimum extraction tube design.
This document summarizes research into using laser excitation of cesium ions to enhance the performance of thermionic energy converters (TECs). The researchers have developed a particle-in-cell model of a planar diode discharge to simulate TEC operation and are using it to model the effects of laser excitation on current-voltage characteristics. They have also designed a laboratory test cell to experimentally validate the effects of laser excitation on TEC performance. Initial results suggest laser excitation could substantially improve TEC current density and efficiency over conventional ignited or triode configurations.
This document summarizes research into using laser excitation to enhance the production of cesium ions in thermionic energy converters (TECs). The researchers have developed a particle-in-cell model of a planar diode discharge to simulate TEC performance with and without laser ionization. They have also designed a laboratory test cell to experimentally validate the effect of laser excitation on TEC current-voltage characteristics. Future work will include refining the models, procuring parts for the test cell, and conducting experimental studies to analyze how laser excitation can increase TEC efficiency and be used in energy systems to reduce carbon emissions.
This document summarizes research into using laser excitation to enhance the production of cesium ions in thermionic energy converters (TECs). The researchers have developed a particle-in-cell model of a planar diode discharge to simulate TEC performance with and without laser ionization. They have also designed a laboratory test cell to experimentally validate the effect of laser excitation on TEC current-voltage characteristics. Future work will include refining the models, procuring parts for the test cell, and conducting experimental studies to characterize optimized TEC performance with optical modulation. The goal is to increase TEC efficiency for applications in solar and combustion energy systems to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
This document summarizes research into using laser excitation of cesium ions to enhance the performance of thermionic energy converters (TECs). The researchers have developed a particle-in-cell model of a planar diode discharge to simulate TEC operation and are using it to model the effects of laser excitation on current-voltage characteristics. They have also designed a laboratory test cell to experimentally validate the effects of laser excitation on TEC performance. Initial results suggest laser excitation could substantially improve TEC current density and efficiency over conventional ignited or triode configurations.
The document summarizes the instrumentation used in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). It describes the key components of the vacuum chamber including baking and magnetic shielding. It discusses the X-ray and electron guns used as sources, and the ion gun used for cleaning and depth profiling samples. It also describes the hemispherical electron energy analyzers used to obtain spectra and characteristics of XPS and Auger spectra including peaks, backgrounds, satellites and splitting.
Sumio Iijima is credited with discovering carbon nanotubes in 1991. Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms that are many times longer than their diameter. They exist as single-walled nanotubes or multi-walled nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes have extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties that make them promising for many applications.
Sumio Iijima is credited with discovering carbon nanotubes in 1991. Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms that are many times longer than their diameter. They exist as single-walled nanotubes or multi-walled nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes have extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties that make them promising for many applications.
Sumio Iijima is credited with discovering carbon nanotubes in 1991. Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms that have unique mechanical and electrical properties. There are two main types: single-walled nanotubes and multi-walled nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes have a variety of potential applications due to their extraordinary strength, thermal conductivity, and other properties.
The document discusses the history and components of X-ray tubes. It begins with an introduction to X-ray tubes, noting they contain a cathode that emits electrons and an anode made of tungsten that attracts electrons. When electrons hit the anode, they release X-ray photons. The document then covers the history of X-ray tube development from Crookes tubes to modern Coolidge tubes. It describes the key components of X-ray tubes including the cathode, anode, target, housing and glass enclosure. Various types of X-ray tubes such as stationary and rotating anode tubes are also summarized.
The document provides information about X-ray tubes, including their history, components, and developments over time. It discusses:
- The key components of an X-ray tube including the cathode, filament, focusing cup, and anode. Electrons are emitted from the filament and accelerated toward the anode to produce X-rays.
- The development of X-ray tubes from the original Crookes tube to modern Coolidge tubes. Coolidge tubes introduced thermionic emission to produce electrons instead of relying on residual gas ionization.
- Advances over time including rotating anodes, improved cooling methods, and different target materials to produce more intense and focused X-rays for various medical and industrial applications
> The document discusses characterizing solids through various techniques like diffraction, microscopy, and spectroscopy. It focuses on X-ray diffraction, describing how X-rays are generated and used to determine crystal structures. Key aspects covered include the interaction of X-rays with matter through scattering and absorption processes, and how optical gratings and crystal structures can cause diffraction through constructive interference.
Similar to Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon detectors forBoson- current transport at room temperature with GA/cm² current carrying capability (20)
In order to study the WGS on an industrial scale at a low pressure, the modeling andsimulation of a WGS reactor operating at a pressure close to Patm and processing an industrial charge in the presence of a high temperature shift catalyst (Fe2O3/Cr2O3) were performed. The Profiles of the carbon monoxide conversion, temperature and pressure along the reactor were obtained. The effect of several operating parameters (inlet temperature, H2O/CO ratio) on the conversion of carbon monoxide along the reactor has been determined. The estimated catalytic mass to convert 60.5% of the carbon monoxide contained in the inlet is 170.76 t. The pressure drops in the reactor are not negligible and the maximum temperaturereached is without any harmful effect on the catalyst. The choice of an optimal inlet temperature and a high H2O/CO ratio improves the conversion of carbon monoxide.
As we are all aware,therecent discovery of the Higgs boson has revealed a highly massive particle, the value of which lies between 125and 126.5 GeV/c2.. According to the basic concepts of Quantum Mechanics, and in full compliance with the Uncertainty Principle and Yukawa intuitions, we were able to calculate the maximum limit of the Higgs boson‟s field of action. From the calculations show that the Higgs boson presents a range of action really very small, namely 9.8828∙10-16[cm], that is slightly smaller than 10-15[cm]. This value is justified by the considerable mass that the Higgs bosonacquires, in perfect agreement with the Uncertainty Principle.
The document presents the results of calculations of parameters of turbulent fluid flow in a pipe with a circular cross-section. Graphs and mathematical functions show how total pressure, velocity, vorticity, turbulent length, dissipation, viscosity, energy, and time change along the length of the pipe for different mass flow rates. A transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at around 2/5 the length of the pipe from the inlet. Parameters generally increase with mass flow rate and distance along the pipe, while turbulent time decreases. Functions are given to describe the variation of each parameter within different sections of the pipe.
This document summarizes a study that analyzes magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow of Newtonian and non-Newtonian nanofluids passing over a magnetic sphere. Nanofluids containing alumina or copper nanoparticles in water or oil bases were examined. Governing equations for continuity, momentum, and energy were derived and non-dimensionalized. The equations were transformed into similarity equations using a stream function and solved numerically. Results showed that increasing the magnetic parameter decreases velocity and temperature. Newtonian nanofluid velocity and temperature were higher than non-Newtonian. Copper-water nanofluid also had higher values than alumina-water.
Building materials used for the walls of simple houses in lower-middle-class areas in Indonesia are currently dominated by brick. This study proposes that soil-paper blocks coated with calcium silicate board may be a suitable alternative, with high embodied energy and density. The research aims to obtain an optimal wall thickness to provide protection against cooling and embodied energy in low income houses, as well as against the temperature conditions in these buildings in highland and lowland areas. Determination of wall thickness is performed by simulation of a 9 m2 building model with thick variables. Cooling calculations involved the use of Archipak software. Temperature measurements were carried out using a data logger on a sample of soil-paper blocks. The results indicate that the optimal wall thickness for protection against cooling and embodied energy is 8 cm. Soil-paper block has a lower density than brick. The use of calcium silicate boards does not affect the internal temperature of a low income house, but they can be used as protection against rainwater and as a substitute for wall plastering.
Adaptive-optimal control involves re-identification of the machining process and the model obtained is used to calculate the optimal process parameters.
Optimal control characterizes the addiction of the technical and economic indicators to process parameters. Characteristic for performance technical indicators is that their dependence to parameter values of process has a limitative, what leads to one of the following conclusions, appropriately or inappropriately, and therefore can serve as restrictions in optimization problem.
Economic indicators have a continuous dependence of process parameters and therefore they are used as objective functions.
Knowledge management (KM) has become an effective way of managing organization‟s intellectual capital or, in other words, organization‟s full experience, skills and knowledge that is relevant for more effective performance in future. The paper proposes a knowledge management to achieve a competitive control of the machining systems. Then an application of Knowledge Management in engineering has been attempted to explain. The model can be used by the manager for the choosing of competitive orders.
1) The document evaluates the effect of varying mole ratios of reactants on the yield of ceftriaxone sodium synthesis. Ceftriaxone sodium was synthesized by reacting 7-ACT and MAEM, then with sodium salt.
2) Testing showed that increasing the mole ratio of MAEM increased the yield up to a ratio of 1:2, where the yield was 72.17% and purity was 99.32%. However, further increasing the ratio did not increase yield.
3) The highest mole ratio of 1:2 produced the highest yield while maintaining high purity. This suggests that a 1:2 mole ratio of reactants could be optimal for industrial scale ceftriaxone sodium production.
The challenges of river water quality management are so enormous, due to the unpredictive modes of contamination. Monitoring different sources of pollutant load contribution to the river basin is also quite tasking, resulting to laborious and expensive process which sometimes lead to analytical errors. This study deals with the assessment of the physico– chemicaland bacteriological parameters of water samples from River Amba during the period of August 2017 to January 2018 and developing regression models. Water quality Parameters such as Temperature, Turbidity (NTU), Suspended solids (mg/l), Colour, Total solids, Total dissolved solids, Electrical conductivity (μs/cm), pH, Hardness, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), and Total Coliform were obtained and compared with water quality standards. The results of the water quality analysis of the study in comparison with drinking water quality standard issued byWorld Health Organization(WHO) and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC) revealed that most of the water quality parameters were not adequate to pronounce the water potable. Hence adequate water treatment processes should be employed to make the water fit for consumption and other domestic uses. Statistical analysis was done, in which the systematic correlation and regressionanalysis showed a significant linear relationship between different pairs of water quality parameters. The highest correlation coefficient between different pairs of parameters obtained is (r = 0.999), resulting from the correlation between TS and SS. Multiple regression analysis was also carried out and regression equations were developed. It was observed that the parameters studied had a positive correlation with each other.
Time, in the globalized world, is one of the most important factors about the economy, science and health. Mankind has made various efforts to use time efficiently for many years. In these studies transport came to the fore and it has become indispensable. In the light of today's technological conditions, air transport is developing at an increasing rate. Every day many aircrafts are produced, which have different speeds, weight and volume, for serve to transport. Therefore to make structures for easy and safe transport need a stable soil. Particularly suitable areas for the airport grounds in cities today, not being physically proper that construction of the airport made on soil with low bearing capacity, swelling potential of an expansive soil, settlement of soil etc, areas. In this study, soil problems encountered in the construction of airports will be explained and a summary of studies on the solution of these problems will be presented.
People in a big city as Antananarivo, capital of Madagascar, have leads to take street foods for their daily nutritional needs. This food habits may be a risk for consumers due to contaminations from street environment and bad practices related to hygiene. This study aimed to examine the quality and safety of street vended foods in Antananarivo, on January 2016 to December 2017.Six hundred and sixty two samples including 126samples of melting salads, 70 beef skewers, 54 chicken skewers, and typical Malagasy foods as : mofoanana (67 samples), mofogasy (64 samples), ramanonaka (64), makasaoka (66), mofoakondro (62) and kobandravina(89);were randomly collected from the streetvendors in Antananarivo marketsto evaluate their bacteriological quality.International Methods (ISO) was adopted for to find the load of Total Aerobic Bacteria andEnterobateriaceae,Escherichia coli and to search pathogen bacteria as Salmonella, Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157H7 and Bacillus cereus in these foods.The results revealed that the mean values ofthe Total Aerobic Bacteria count was 0.1x106- 4.8x106cfu/g. Enterobacteriaceaecount range from 0.4x102 to 1.9x102cfu/g. Escherichia coli count range from 0.04x102cfu/g. to 0.19 x102cfu/g.Salmonellawas only present in melting salads, beef skewers and chicken skewers samples. Bacillus cereus count range from 0,1x102 to 1,5x102cfu/g. Campylobacter jejuniwas only present in samples of ramanonaka and kobandravina. Two strains of presumptive Eschercichia coli O157 H7 (βglucuronidase -) were isolated. PCR method was used to confirm the identity of these two isolates. A high contamination above 106 cfu/g food and the presence of potential pathogens bacteria could be hazardous. Systematic inspections and training of food vendors on food hygiene and application of hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) has been recognised as measures to guarantee improvement of the quality of street foods.
In order to clean up soils contaminated with hydrocarbons, the bioremediation activity of Pseudomonas putida was studied. Pseudomonas putida is a bacterium that can withstand the harshest environmental conditions. It is able to metabolize a wide range of petroleum hydrocarbons which is used as a source of carbon and energy. Given the potential of this microorganism, an experiment wasconducted on this strain.
For the isolation of this microorganism, a sample ofsoil from the Vakinankaratra region in the urban commune of Antsirabe II, Madagascar was microbiologically analysed. The bacterial identification was based on a study of the morphological, physicochemical and sequential analysis of the 16S rDNA gene.
Scored tablets provide dose flexibility, ease of swallowing and cost savings. However, some problems with scored tablets can be confronted like difficulty of breaking, unequally breaking and loss of mass upon breaking. This paper investigates the effect of score lines on the density distribution using continuum modelling. In keeping with previous work in the pharmaceutical field, a modified Drucker Prager Cap model is described briefly and used in the simulations. Coulomb friction is included between powder and tools. The microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) Vivapur® 102 was used to identify the model parameters using experimental tests with instrumented die, shear cell and diametrical crushing. The obtained results indicate that simulations may be useful not only to determine density distributions within tablets, but also may provide indications about performance of score lines.
The document discusses using solar chimneys to reduce heating loads in cold climates. It summarizes previous research on solar chimneys and their impact on ventilation. The author models a school building in a cold climate with and without a solar chimney using energy simulation software. The results show that with a solar chimney, the indoor temperature reached 22°C without mechanical heating, within the comfort range. By applying passive solar techniques like solar chimneys, architectural projects can save energy without large costs.
The control of motor rotation speed by the change of resistor resistance value in armature circuit is called ‘resistor control”. For the regulation of resistance value R0, included in armature winding circuit, we can use various technical solutions. The most used solution is the discrete variation of armature added resistance value by shunting its parts with contactors contacts. Nowadays, the change of resistor resistance in armature circuit can be realized by shunting with a given porosity γ of resistor R0 trough electronic keys. In this paper, we study the design of control system represented on figure 1.
A poultry yield prediction model have then designed using a data mining and machine learning technique called Classification and Regression Tree (CART) algorithm. The developed model has been optimized and pruned using the Reduced Error Pruning (REP) algorithm to improve prediction accuracy. An algorithm to make the prediction model flexible and capable of making predictions irrespective of poultry size or population has been proposed. The model can be used by poultry farmers to predict yield even before a breeding season. The model can also be used to help farmers take decisions to ensure desirable yield at the end of the breeding season.
Today, Web site design is used to make sites useful to users, with accessible functions, resources and information. Therefore, that design involves use of methodologies that allow an adequate structuring of them resources and organization, permitting users to access them quickly, easily and intuitively. This research consisted of a usability study oriented to website structure designers using a methodology based on concepts of ontology design. This study includes a planning to evaluate the design and the structure of website in aspects such as: ease of use, efficient access to information and performance on the tasks focused to total satisfaction of end user. Heuristic tests were used as diagnostic tools to evaluate usability of website design structures; these were supported by a heuristic evaluation guide and in the Sirius methodology[3]. The results obtained from them, allowed us to detect opportunities for improvement and optimization in website design, and in refining the Web interface oriented to end users.
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This document summarizes research on modifying an epoxy resin with epoxidized sunflower oil (ESO) and assessing the impact on material properties. Two processes for incorporating ESO into the epoxy resin were tested: a one-stage and two-stage process. Results showed the two-stage process produced materials with greater impact strength, fracture toughness, and decomposition temperature compared to the one-stage process. Specifically, the polymer composite achieved the best properties when containing 5% ESO using the two-stage process, improving the toughness and strength of the material.
A Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS) monitors a network for malicious activities or policy violations [1]. The Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) is a full virtualization solution for Linux on x86 hardware virtualization extensions [2]. We design and implement a back-propagation network intrusion detection system in KVM. Compared to traditional Back Propagation (BP) NIDS, the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm is applied to improve efficiency. The results show an improved system in terms of recall and precision along with missing detection rates.
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Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon detectors forBoson- current transport at room temperature with GA/cm² current carrying capability
1. International Journal of Innovation Engineering and Science Research
Open Access
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 23|P a g e
Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound
materials, as IR-photon detectors forBoson-
current transport at room temperature with
GA/cm² current carrying capability
Hans W.P. Koops a)
HaWilKo GmbH 64372 Ober-Ramstadt, Ernst Ludwig Straße 16 , Germany
I. Introduction
In vacuum nano electronics different electron sources are used. They usually consist of hot or cold zirconia,
tungsten, or carbon tips, the latter being in diamond or nanotube form. Electron sources of a special composite of
precious metal crystals, which are embedded in a fullerene matrix, were first developed in 1992 at the Research
Institute of Deutsche Telekom FTZ in Darmstadt, Germany. With those very high emission current densities were
achieved and were brought to applications. Outstanding room temperature conductivities were achieved with
these nanogranular composite materials, and are presented here along with a model to explain the measured
data,
II. Currents from conventional emitters
Typical metallic or even single carbon (carbon nanotube) emitters only start their current field emission above
several 100 V and never reach emission currents of mA. Although the geometries of these conventional and the
new emitter tips are very similar, in the case of pure platinum or carbon spikes, the work function for platinum of
the electrons is 5.4 eV and for carbon 4.8 eV. Therefore, very high extraction voltages are always required with
these field emitters, and the maximum emission currents are at 10 μA for Pt. Carbon nanotubes reach 0.1 μA,
since they vaporize their carbon atoms from the tip due to the ohm resistance of the nanotube [
1
].Also, metal field
emitter tips do not reach current emissions greater than 10 μA due to the internal resistance of the wires. These
then melt due to the high resistance at elevated temperature. Successful deposition experiments arrive with
carbonyls of the metals, preferably tungsten hexa-carbonyl. However, these compounds showed emissions as
known from standard field emitters, i.e. they gave a maximum emission current of 10 μA, and required high
extraction voltages of> 1 kV, see also [2
].
III. Nanogranular composites for high-performance electron sources
Figure 1: Deposition of emitter tips using nano-granular compound materials.
Organometallic compounds have been used to prepare the electron sources described above.For this purpose,
the selected organo-metallic materials were supplied by commercial manufacturers[
3
], which have a low vapor
2. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 24|P a g e
pressure at room temperature. They were supplied from a reservoir in a molecular beam to the deposition site by
means of a cannula, see figure 1. The nanogranular emitters grow due to
a)
Hans W.P. Koops, HaWilKo GmbH Ober-Ramstadt, e-mail: hans.koops@t-online.de18. 3.2018
theelectron scattering in the heavy metals to a relatively blunt tip of about 10 nm radius of curvature. The
material is not monocrystalline - as in conventional emitters - but grows under the high dose of the primary beam
to metal crystals of 2 to 4 nm diameters, which are embedded in a fullerene crystal matrix having 1 to 2 nm
diameters. During the growth the metal nanocrystals solidify at 500°C and are encapsulated by the fullerenes at
150 °C, see figure 2.
The tip material is polycrystalline. It is composed of very small metal crystals, each containing about 800 metal
atoms embedded in an enveloping phase of fullerenes (Bucky-balls).
Fig. 2. Nanogranular compound field emitter tips. Left: Gold with crystal diameters of 4 nm, grown with Gold-
Acetylacetonate-tri-methyl. Right: Platinum, grown from cyclopentadienyl-platinum-tri-methyl methyl to diameters
of 2 nm.Both experiments: 20 kV electrons, 1 nA electron current, focused to 4 nm spot.( 300 kV TEM images by
MPI Halle ).
The deposited tips, which were used for the photographs in the TEM were deposited in the JEOL 840 SEM at
Telekom with nA electron current on edges of standing mounted copper object carrier grids. This allowed to
image the tips in horizontal position in the TEM, and avoided the scattering contrast contribution of a carrier foil.
To understand the materials better, work function measurements were performed, see figure 3, left. They
resulted in activation energies for variable range hopping for Pt/C and Au/C in the meV range!
This result indicated that the nanogranular compound material is well suited for energy harvesting in the IR
region. Also the construction of the compound materials with many layers of crystals, having the same energy
gaps for excitonic energy levels enhances the sensitivity of the material to absorb light of all frequencies from IR
to UV! Figure 3, right, shows a white-light optical image in reflection. On an silicon base coated with SiO2gold
contact areas were structured, which allowed 3 lines (green) to be deposited with 20 kV electrons. Using the Pt-
cyclopentadienyl-tri-methyl-methyl precursor 3 bridges were deposited, which are broadened by the forward and
back scattered electrons by additional deposition. This material looks black in the light microscope, indicating that
all photons of the white spectrum from the lamp were absorbed by the nanocrystalline deposit.
As a result, the required extraction voltage for field electron emission was much lower than with metal single
crystal emitter tips. Thus, gold / carbon nanogranular emitters, delivered the first emitted electrons starting at 8 V,
and terminated the emission at extraction voltages of 24 V at an emission current near 1 mA. The emitter-
extractor distance was less than 0.8 μm, see figure 4. The same applies to the Pt/C emitters, which began to emit
at 15 V and ended at 75 V with an emission current of 1.4 mA or an emission current density of 1.4 GA / cm².
Electrons emanating from the emitter tip were coherent, as seen in the far field, by registering several patterns of
interference fringes. This measurement confirms that the electrons emitted from the field emitters are coherent,
indicating that they come from coherent bosons existing in the tipmaterial [
4
].
3. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 25|P a g e
Fig. 3. Left: Activation energies for variable range hopping for Pt/C (1) and Au/C (2) [
5
].
Right: Optical photograph with white light illumination. Optical sensitivity of a line deposited with Pt/C (55) green:
beam trace. Back scattered nanocrystalline deposit: black (54); blue area (51): SiO2 on Si base material.
Interference colors(53): insulating deposit. White areas: (52) Gold contact layers).
Fig. 4: Left: Au/C emission curve. Right Top: Diode- Source before the measurement: left: emitter, right extractor
in x-shape. Right Bottom: Structure obtained, after the emission curve stopped [
6
]. The bent form of the emitter
originated from implantation of water molecule ions sputtered from the anode and implanted at the cathode side
facing the anode. This implantation can be prevented by using a potential saddle point between cathode and
anode with a potential higher than the anode potential. This prolongs the lifetime of the emitter [
7
,
8
].
IV. Model to explain the hyper giant emission current densities
One explanation was formulated by Inosov et al. in 2010 of the superconductors using Cooper pairs and their
high currents of up to 1 MA / cm² in wires, which are cooled to 40 K[
9
]. This provided the impetus for the
formulation of a model to explain the hyper giant current carrying capacity of the novel nanogranular composite
materials. Inosov and colleagues recognized that the Cooper pairs being formed from two electrons having
antiparallel spin can reside as Bosons at the same energy level. This allows current densities of 1 MA/cm² in the
material.
Figure 5: Left: Cooper pair, 2 charges repel, but antiparallel spins attract and balance the boson. Right: Koops
pair, electron (-) and hole (+) attract, but the parallel spins repel and stabilize the Boson to a diameter of 600 nm.
4. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 26|P a g e
The only difference between Cooper pairs and Koops pairs is in the sign of the charges and for the magnetic
forces.
This is predicted by Maxwell's theory. However, for Cooper pairs cooling with liquid nitrogen to at least 40 K was
required.
But our experiments with Koops pairs were performed at room temperature: 300 K!
Considering that by electron beam obtained Au/C or Pt/C deposits are nanocrystalline composite materials, with
crystallite diameters of Pt (2 nm) or Au (4 nm), each encased in a layer of fullerene crystals. This means that now
2 conductive phases touch each other. Therefore, it is concluded that 2 work functions (Pt: 5.4 eV or Gold: 5.0 eV
and Carbon: 4.8 V) are in contact and immediately form a common average Fermi level (Pt / C: 5.1 eV, and Au /
C: 4.9 eV) into which the carbon must give up its electrons and thus the platinum or the gold is negatively
charged. The energy states above the common Fermi level are empty, and extend through the whole composite
matter.
At room temperature, electrons in the adjacent metals are excited by the Maxwell energy distribution in the
conduction band, and they can occupy the empty energy levels in the Pt / C or Au / C material and immediately
form after Bose Bosons from electron and hole with parallel spin. This behavior is made possible by the fact that
crystals with a diameter of less than 5 nm can no longer carry phonons [10
, 11
]. These Bosons are at the same
energy level, and are coherent, and can be up to 1028
/ cm² in number. And since the material is no longer a pure
metal that obeys the Fermi energy distribution, with only 2 electrons per level, but it is now composed by Bosons,
which have a dipole moment (+, -) with many particles in the same level, similar to lasers. For data comparison:
high temperature super conductors ( HTc ) reach at 40 K with titanium doped magnesium-di-boride < 1 MA/cm2
!
[see table 1: 17], but the nanogranular composite materials reach up to 1 GA/cm².
V. History of the discovery of nanogranular compound materials for electron
sources and other applications.
Material combination of
emitters
Maximum obtained
current carrying
capability
Temperature
T [°C]
Investigation at Citation
Nanogranular compoundmaterials:
Au/C 2 MA/cm²,
10
3
MA/cm²(tip)
RT Measured in UHV
( TU Darmstadt)
[
12
]
Pt/C 2 MA/cm² RT Measured in UHV
( TU Darmstadt)
[
13
]
Pt/C 15 MA/cm² RT Measured at wire archUniv.
Maryland USA
[
14
]
Pt/C 10 MA/cm² RT Measured in HV (DTAG) [
15
]
Pt/C 100 MA/cm² RT Measured in HV (NaWoTec, D) [
16
]
Me/Fullerene >50 MA/cm² 20 Metal in nanogranular matrix,
Embedded (Me)
[
17
]
For comparison: High Temperature Superconductors (HTc):
TitaniumdopedMagnesiu
mdiboride
<1MA/cm² --233,15 Spektrum d. Wissenschaft. 7.
2005
[
18
]
Table 1: Emission current densities from field-emitters from nanogranular composite materials (FEBIP: Focused
Electron Beam Induced Processing), see publications by several authors 1994 to 2005.
VI. But the Bosons cannot move!
The Bosons can be moved only by applying a field gradient of an electric field along the wire. When they reach
the end of the wire, the Bosons disintegrate into an electron and a hole. The electron escapes from the
substance and goes into vacuum (emission of electrons) or into the conductor of the terminal by tunneling into
the conduction band. This explains the electron emission, but also why the work function is so low, and why the
current is so much higher than with the emission of electrons from a metal after the Fermi Dirac distribution.
Therefore, this electron emission is the solution to the mystery of the hyper giant-current density as it was
5. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 27|P a g e
measured by our group at FTZ with these nanogranular composite emitter tips.It was also measured at the
Helmholtz Institute KIT – KNMF in Karlsruhe, Germany, see figure 6.
Fig. 6: Top left: Measurement setup to determine the current carrying capability of Pt/C deposit between platinum
conducting lines. Top right: an overloaded deposit. The Pt- conducting lines melt but not the Pt/C deposit under
investigation. The lower graphs show I/V curves. Left: the current obtained between + 1 V and – 1 V. right: for -4
V to + 4 V. A current up to 0,6 A was possible ( with friendly allowance of KIT/ KNMF).[
19
]
Also, by multiplying the emitter tips in parallel, we had to learn that the size of the matching connecting surface of
the structure to the deposited pure metal is limited by its current carrying capacity. By friendly cooperation with
Mr. A. Rudzinski of the company RAITH, Germany, we were able to make electrical measurements of the device,
see Figure 7.
To increase the available currents, a plurality of emitter tips were deposited in parallel at intervals on cone-
shaped deposited contacts on a gold conductor end. When measuring the emission currents from 5 emitters
connected in parallel, an emission starting at 15 volts was measured with an increase up to 135 μA total current,
which then stopped and completely disappeared at 80 μA, see Figure 7. The explanation for the stop is as
follows: Gold as a patterning material can carry 250 kA/cm². The measured current of 135 µA corresponds for
the 5 emitter sets already a ten-fold overload and therefore results in melting of the electron emitters. The
nanogranular compound materials demand to first build a large area as an connection sheet to the underlying
metal, and to deposit only then on top of this structure the electron emitters.
Fig. 7: I/V curve for multiple parallel emitters used to increase the emitted current. Center structure after raising
the extraction voltage by 2 Volts, the base material did melt. Right: Emitter structure before starting the
experiment
6. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 28|P a g e
Other experiments showed, that the deposited nanogranular compound material has 0 Ohm resistance, but is
controlled in its conductivity by the diameter and property of the contact material only [20
].
VII. Koops-GranMat can be applied for harvesting of Greenhouse gas emission in
the IR
NASA recorded in a 10 years measurement the in 2009 quoted data-average in W/m² [
21
].
In addition to the sunlight, which sends 160 W/m² to the earth during the day, the green-house gas molecules in
the upper atmosphere send in the infrared window of the earth's atmosphere Infra-Red photons with 340 W/m²
directly to earth during the day and the night. This is a 4 fold energy supply compared to that in the visible
spectrum. Greenhouse gases emit in the near IR range, e.g. at 128 meV ( Pt/C). We can harvest in the near IR
the emitted energy with the Koops-GranMat® detector. This is the region, where the atmosphere of the earth is
transmitting the IR radiation to the earth with 340 W/m², in day and at night. The atmosphere has a high
transmission region at 5 µm to 10 µm, where no absorption loss hinders this energy supply at day and at night.
Fig. 8: The earth-near space delivers a lot of greenhouse energy to the earth, day and night.
The water containing atmosphere does not absorb the IR radiation around 7 to 10 µm.
Fig. 9: The IR reception of Pt/C is in the gap before 10 µm, where there is no absorption.
7. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
Volume 2 Issue 2March 2018 29|P a g e
This energy can be absorbed with the panels or films, which are coated with Boson field gradient materials. The
energy harvesting requires only a field-gradient in the receiver layers, to move the electrical energy to the user.
See figure 9 and 10.To harvest the energy from the green-house gases in the earth atmosphere sheets of glass
or polymers can be coated with electron-beam induced deposition materials. Presently Pt/C or Au/C
nanogranular compound materials are known. However less expensive materials are also possible, which have a
low bandgap, like 0.128 eV for Pt/C compound layers.
Fig.10.Principle of energy harvesting from the green-house emission using nanogranular compound materials.
Since a 2 materials mixture is used, the 2 materials form a common Fermi–level. The Pt-material takes the
electrons from the Fullerene crystals, which have therefore holes. The incoming radiation excites the electrons in
the Fermi-Level to the level with the holes. There electrons and holes form Bosons in a very high density. They
can be moved by an external dipole moment and finally deliver electrons to the outside world for work.
Nano-composit materials, e.g. Pt/C are sensitive in the IR light and can harvest all day and night the IR- light,
which is emitted by the Green-House – gases in the upper atmosphere. By switching on a field gradient at the rim
of the Koops-GranMat® detector layer the in Bosons stored energy isat the end of the layer released as electrons
to the customer.
This material unifies the radiation detector, the storage device, and the energy supply, see figure 11. IR-Solar-
receivers are especially useful in areas having a low density of population, but need to use electrical machines
like pumps, cars and other tools.
Fig. 11: To move Bosons a field gradient is required, which can propel the dipoles of the Bosons to theend of the
field gradient, where they can decay and deliver the charge to a user.
The current supply can be controlled by adjusting the static field gradients or switching them on or off. The
principle has been shown, in the experimental stage. Now a larger area layer of 1 cm² is under construction for
demonstration.
8. Hans Wilfried Peter Koops “Hypergiant –conducting nanogranular compound materials, as IR-photon….”
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Later presently existing glass coating machines, which deposit by ion bombardment the coating layers on glass
or polymer sheets, can be used by replacing the Sputter-sources with ions by field-emission array electron
sources, which deposit the nanocrystalline detector layers from organometallic precursor gases to absorb the IR
radiation and convert this finally to electrons or current.
VIII. Conclusions
Nanogranular compound materials offer a possible solution to absorb energy from the space in the earth
atmosphere without interruption by day and at night. The green-house gas emission is the powerful source of
340W/m² during day and night. Large area detectors and storage devices are possible, which are far more
efficient than present Silicon solar energy panels. The fabrication is possible by small changes in today’s glass
coating systems. It will be a revolution for the earth energy budget without the need to burn coal or plants. All this
energy comes in the end from the sun and the space.
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