Disclaimer: A lot from this slides were taken also from https://www.slideshare.net/babysurgeon/scrotal-swellings-1 (Dr Selvaraj Balasubramani)
This covers only :
ANATOMY
CAUSES
TORSION OF TESTIS
EPIDIDYMO-ORCHITIS
HYDROCELE
EPIDIDYMAL CYST
VARICOCELE
Disclaimer: A lot from this slides were taken also from https://www.slideshare.net/babysurgeon/scrotal-swellings-1 (Dr Selvaraj Balasubramani)
This covers only :
ANATOMY
CAUSES
TORSION OF TESTIS
EPIDIDYMO-ORCHITIS
HYDROCELE
EPIDIDYMAL CYST
VARICOCELE
OPEN INGUINAL HERNIA REPAIR- OPERATIVE SURGERY
#surgicaleducator #operativesurgery #openinguinalherniarepair #usmle #babysurgeon #surgicaltutor
Dear viewers,
• Greetings from “Surgical Educator”
• Because of the popular demand by viewers of the YouTube channel “Surgical Educator”, I have decided to create and upload videos on common surgeries.
• I have already uploaded videos on open and Laparoscopic Appendicectomy, Thyroidectomy, Modified Radical Mastectomy and open and
Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy
• In this video today, I have discussed Open Inguinal Hernia Repair.
• However, these videos are not real surgeries but the theoretical aspect of operative surgery like going through an atlas of operative surgery.
• Along with these videos, I recommend you to watch real operative surgery videos as well and I will give a link for each surgery in the end of the video as end-cards, which I think will be very useful.
• This will give a very good opportunity for the surgical trainees to mentally rehearse various surgical steps in a sequential manner prior to actual surgery. You can watch the video in the following links:
• surgicaleducator.blogspot.com
• youtube.com/c/surgicaleducator
• Thank you for watching the videos.
OPEN INGUINAL HERNIA REPAIR- OPERATIVE SURGERY
#surgicaleducator #operativesurgery #openinguinalherniarepair #usmle #babysurgeon #surgicaltutor
Dear viewers,
• Greetings from “Surgical Educator”
• Because of the popular demand by viewers of the YouTube channel “Surgical Educator”, I have decided to create and upload videos on common surgeries.
• I have already uploaded videos on open and Laparoscopic Appendicectomy, Thyroidectomy, Modified Radical Mastectomy and open and
Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy
• In this video today, I have discussed Open Inguinal Hernia Repair.
• However, these videos are not real surgeries but the theoretical aspect of operative surgery like going through an atlas of operative surgery.
• Along with these videos, I recommend you to watch real operative surgery videos as well and I will give a link for each surgery in the end of the video as end-cards, which I think will be very useful.
• This will give a very good opportunity for the surgical trainees to mentally rehearse various surgical steps in a sequential manner prior to actual surgery. You can watch the video in the following links:
• surgicaleducator.blogspot.com
• youtube.com/c/surgicaleducator
• Thank you for watching the videos.
In this playlist you can watch everything about Scrotal swellings. I have discussed introduction, hydrocele, torsion testis, epididymal cyst, varicocele and testicular tumors. If you watch all these videos together you will become cofident in dealing with the problem of Scrotal Swellings.
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
5. Layers of Scrotum
SKIN
DARTOS MUSCLE
EXTERNAL SPERMATIC FASCIA (external oblique)
CREMASTRIC MUSCLE (internal oblique)
INTERNAL SPERMATIC FASCIA (Facia Transversalis)
TUNICA VAGINALIS
6. Arteries and veins of testis
Testicular Artery
• It is a branch of abdominal aorta
• Descends on the posterior abdominal wall
• It traverses the inguinal canal and supplies the testis and
the epididymis
Testicular Veins
• These are the extensive venous plexus, the pampiniform plexus
• Leaves from the posterior border of the testis
• As the plexus ascends, it becomes reduced in size so that at
about the level of deep inguinal ring, a single testicular vein is
formed
• Drains into left renal vein on left side and
inferior vena cava on right side
7. Risk factors
Most hydroceles are present at birth (congenital),
and babies who are born prematurely have a higher
risk of having a hydrocele.
Hydrocele generally affects men 40 or older:
• Scrotal injury (Traumatic/Iatrogenic),
• Infection including sexually transmitted
infections,
• Tumours & Radiation Therapy
8. ETIOLOGY
For baby boys, a hydrocele can develop m the womb. Normally, the
testicles descend from the developing baby's abdominal cavity into
scrotum. A sac (processus vaginalis) accompanies each testicle, allowing
fluid to surround the testicles.
In most cases, each sac closes and the fluid is absorbed. However, if the
fluid remains acer the sac closes, the condition is known as a
NONCOMMUNICATING HYDROCELE. Because the sac is closed,
fluid can't flow back into the abdomen. Usually the fluid gets absorbed
within a year.
In some cases, however, the sac remains open. With this condition, known
as COMMUNICATING HYDROCELE,the sac can change size or,if the
scrotal sac is compressed, fluid can flow back into the abdomen.
In older males, a hydrocele can develop as a result of inflammation or
injury within the scrotum.Inflammation may be result of infection of the
small coiled tube at the back of each testicle (epididymitis) or of the
testicle.
10. CONGENITAL HYDROCELE
NONCOMMUNICATING HYDROCELE - patent
processus vaginalis obliterates but fluid remains.
COMMUNICATING HYDROCELE - the sac remains
open in communication with the peritoneal cavity.
12. ENCYSTED HYDROCELE OF
CORD:
PARTOF FUNICULAR PROCESS
PATENT, &IS CLOSED FROM
THE TUNICA VAGINALIS BELOW &
PERITONEAL CAVITYABOVE.
SMOOTH,OVAL SWELLING
ASSOCIATED WITH SPERMATIC
CORD.
TRACTION TEST +ve
13. HYDROCELE EN BISSAC
TWO INTERCOMMUNICATING SACS ABOVE & BELOW
NECK OF SCROTUM
Operated at Midnapur Medical College, West Bengal (2008)
14. HYDROCELE OF CANALOF NUCK:
• OCCURS IN FEMALES
• IN THE INGUINALCANAL
• THE CYST LIES IN RELATION ROUND LIGAMENT
• SIMILAR TO HHYDROCELE OF THE CORD(ENCYSTED HYDROCELE)
15. HYDROCELE OF HERNIAL
SAC:
NECK OF THE HERNIAL SAC
BECOMES CLOSED BY
ADHESIONS OR PLUGGED BY
OMENTUM.
RESULTS IS RETENTION OF
FLUID SECRETED BY
PERITONEUM OF HERNIAL
SAC
17. INFECTIONS:
FILARIASIS
TUBERCULOSIS OF EPIDIDYMIS
SYPHILIS
INJURY
POST HERNIORRHAPHY HYDROCELE
POST VARICOCELECTOMYHYDROCELE
TRAUMA
TUMOUR
MALIGNANCY
SECONDARYHYDROCELE
18. COMMON IN COASTAL/TROPICAL
REGIONS , ACCOUNTS FOR 80 % OF ALL
HYDROCELES IN
TROPICAL REGIONS, CAUSED BY Wucheria
bancrofti
REPEATED ATTACKS OF FILARIAL EPIDIDYMITIS
SIZE- LARGE SIZE WITH THICKENED SAC
OCCASIONALLY CONTAINS CHOLESTEROL
RICH FLUID – CHYLOCELE
DUE TO RUPTURED LYPMH VARIX WITH
DISCHARGE OF CHYLE IN TO THE HYDROCELE
RESEMBLES PRIMARY HYDROCELE
MAY BE ASSOCIATED WITH FILARIAL
ELEPHANTIASIS.
FILARIAL HYDROCELE
19. 1. INFECTION
2. PYOCELE,HEMATOCELE/CLOTTED
HEMATOCELE
3. CALCIFICATION OF SAC
4. ATROPHY OF TESTIS
5. HERNIATION OF HYDROCELE SAC
(rare)pure scrotal swelling
6. RUPTURE (rare)
7. INFERTILITY (rare)
COMPLICATIONS OF HYDROCELE:
20. SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
In the early stages hydroceles are usually asymptomatic. As they
enlarge they bulge out and can become a cosmetic problem.
Symptoms can develop, as the swelling increases in size, which
include: Heaviness, fullness, or dragging sensations due to an
enlarged scrotum.
There may be mild discomfort radiating along the inguinal area to
the mid portion of the back.
If pain develops in a Hydrocele it is usually an indication of acute
epididymal infection or due to overstretched scrotal skin in huge
hydroceles.
The size may decrease with recumbency or increase in the upright
position.
Fever, chills, nausea, or vomiting indicate an infection of a
hydrocele.
21. PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT
Smooth, cystic mass completely
surrounding the testis and not involving the
spermatic cord(Possible to get above the
swelling) is characteristic of a hydrocele.
The consistency of hydroceles can vary
with position. Sometimes a hydrocele
can become smaller and softer on lying
down and become larger and tenser
after prolonged standing.
Getting above theSwelling
When the fluid in the hydrocele is clear,
Transillumination is positive.
Transillumination may be negative in filarial
hydrocele due to prescence of chyle, calcification
or in complicated hematocele/pyocele
22. Getting above the swelling positve
Transillumination positive
Fluctuation positive
Non reducible swelling
Impulse on coughing negative (positive in congenital
hydrocele)
Testis cannot be palpated separately. (exception -
funicular hydrocele a.k.a encysted hydrocele)
Why is it Hydrocele?
23. IMAGING STUDIES
Uncomplicated hydroceles do not require radiographic
studies. Findings from USG can help evaluate for an
underlying process, such as a tumour or torsion.
Composition of Hydrocele Fluid
• Color -Straw or amber colored.
• Composition Water, fibrinogen, inorganic salts,
albumin and cholesterol crystals
• Hydrocele fluid normally won't clot if it is drained
into a container but will clot immediately even if it
comes into contact with a drop of blood
25. In Children(congenital hydrocele),
A Non-communicating Hydrocele usually resolves spontaneously by the time
the child reaches the age of 1 year.
A hydrocele that persists longer than 12 to 18 months is usually a
Communicating Hydrocele & requires inguinal Herniotomy......
In Adults,
Treatment depends upon the age of the patient and the degree of
discomfort caused by the hydrocele. Surgical excision forms the
definitive therapy for hydroceles.
When they are small and asymptomatic, hydroceles require no treatment
other than reassurance.
Indications for surgery –
Scrotal discomfort or pain
Cosmetic - disfigurement due to the sheer size of the
hydrocele.
TREATMENT
26. Techniques include
LORDS PLICATION
used for small to medium hydroceles with thin sac.
Benefits - reduced risk of hematoma.. Some articles
suggest a slight incidence of recurrence of the hydrocele
following this procedure.
JABOULAYS OPERATION
used for large size hydrocele,after I & D,the sac is
everted and sutured behind the testis, associated with a
reduced risk of recurrence, may have an increased risk
of hematoma.
SHARMA & JHAWERS TECHNIQUE
after evacuation, the sac with the testis is placed in a
neewly creatd pocket between the fascial layers of the
scrotum
Encysted Hydrocele- Inguinal herniotmy + Incision &
drainage of the encysted hydrocele
29. INJURY TO VAS DEFERENS
INJURY TO URETHRA
INJURY TO TESTIS/EPIDIDYMIS
REACTIONARY HAEMORRHAGE - Hematocele
INFECTION - Pyocele
SINUS FORMATION between layers
RECURRENT HYDROCELE
COMPLICATIONS OF SURGERY
31. Classic Clinical case of Hydrocele
• A 42-year-old male patient presents with right sided scrotal
swelling of two years duration. It is a progressively increasing
painless swelling.
• O/E: the right side of the scrotum shows a swelling of 15 x 10
cm size which is confined to the scrotum (can get above the
swelling). The surface of the swelling is smooth and borders are
well-defined. There is no local rise of temperature. The swelling
is fluctuant and transilluminant. It is not reducible.There is no
cough pulse. The right testis is not felt separately.
• The spermatic cord is felt above the swelling and is tender.
• The contralateral testis and genitalia are normal. There is no
evidence of any mass or lymph nodes in the abdomen
32. Reference
• Bailey and Love-Short Practice of Surgery
• Manual on Clinical Surgery -Somen.Das
Editor's Notes
Testis descends from the posterolateral genitourinary ridge at the beginning of the third trimester of fetal gestation, a saclike extension of peritoneum descends in concert with the testis. As descent progresses, the sac envelops the testis and epididymis. The result is a serosal-lined tubular communication between the abdomen and the tunica vaginalis of the scrotum.
The peritoneum-derived serosal communication is the processus vaginalis, and the serosa of the hemiscrotum becomes the tunica vaginalis. At term, or within the first 1-2 years of life, the processus vaginalis of the spermatic cord fuses, obliterating the communication between the abdomen and the scrotum. The processus fuses distally as far as the lower epididymal pole and anteriorly to the upper epididymal pole. Failure of complete fusion may result in communicating hydroceles, indirect inguinal hernias, and the bell- clapper deformity of abnormal testicular fixation in the scrotum.
A hydrocele can be produced in four ways:
-by excessive production of fluid within the sac, e.g. secondary hydrocele
-through defective absorption of fluid
-by interference with lymphatic drainage of scrotal structures as in case of elephantiasis
-by connection with a hernia of the peritoneal cavity in the congenital variety, which presents as hydrocele of the cord
Most common type of hydrocele is Vaginal hydrocele in which the process is obliterated & there is accumulation of fluid between the layers of tunica vaginalis ,there is called vaginal hydrocele
Congenital hydrocele: in simple words there is communincation betweeen scrotal sac & peritoneal cavity.
Characteristics feature of communicating hydrocele is Diural Variation i.e when a baby gets up early in morning , there won't be any swelling bcz throught the night baby was lying down as the DAY goes on, slowly the fluid in the peritoneal cavity will come down into the scrotum,baby will develop swelling towards afternoon or evening.
Traction test +ve which means when we pull down particular testis,along with testis the encysted hydrocele will also come down
Bilocular Hydrocele(rare): there will be cyst in the scrotum & another cyst in between muscles of ant. abd.wall musculature & this two cyst will be interconnected, so if we press one cyst, we can see movement in other cyst also which we can call cross fluctation test is +ve in this case.
1st pic(top left): Boy with right side hydrocele,if a baby is born with this type of swelling we should not do any surgery immediately,we can wait upto 2 years & then procede with any surgical option bcz we can assume in this case it's a communicating hydrocele in which there is connection between scrotal sca & peritoneal cavity,it will reside by its own over the time or whe need to do herniotmy to repair.
2nd pic: Adult hydrocele Bilateral variety(big size) penis is also buried in scrotum & it is an surgical emergency bcz patient will have problem in voiding urine and also At the time of urination,some urine will fall on skin & it can cause alkaline dermatitis.
3rd pic(top right): Doctor is trying to get above the swelling & try to feel the spermatic cord there so that he can conclude swelling is confined to scratal region only.
4th pic(bottom left):Doctor is performing transillumination test. we can do this test lateral to medial or medial to lateral but not psoterior bczit will give false negative result due to inteference of testis.
5th pic: Doctor is performing Traction test- in this test when we pull the testis, along with testis encysted hydrocele will also come down.
Last pic(bottom right): Filarial hydrocele very biz in size.
1st pic: Hematocele 2nd pic: Pyocele
Last pic: Hernia of the hydrocele sac, hydrocele sac will burrow through layers of scrotum including dartos muscles & it will just lie benath the skin
EXAMINATION OF HYDROCELE
Position : standing
Exposure : from the abdomen till both knees
INSPECTION
Side
. Unilateral or bilateral . Inguinal , scrotal or inguino-scrotal . Testis: included or separate . Penis : Normal or pushed or buried
Shape : Pyriform or Globular
Size: Approximate size eg: potato
Skin over
. Edema , redness . sloughing or gangrene . Dilated veins . Ulcer , sinus (Post.: T.B , Ant. : tumor) . Scars
PALPATION Superficial: for hotness , tenderness
Deep :- . Scrotal neck test . Surface . Reducibility . Consistency . Cough impulse or thrill
. Relation to testis (within or can be felt separate) . Relation to the cord (Hydrocele of the cord & Mobility when testis is pulled down)
Healthy testis , cord
General : Abdominal mass , PALN , Wirchow LN , Prostate , spines
Getting above the swelling -ve : Infantile & encysted hydrocele.
Transillumination test -ve: Hematocele,pyocele,chylocele,thickened sac
Laboratory evaluation is generally not essential to the evaluation of hydrocele & hernias
Leukocytosis may be sign of strangulated hernia.
Leukocytosis with higher perceantage of neutrophils suggests an infection and/or inflammatory process(eg.epidydymo-orchitis)
congenital hydrocele: there is connection between hydrocele sac & peritoneal cavity,we have to disconnect that patent process vaginalis ,so we have to do inguinal herniotomy
1st pic(top left corner): Adult hydrocele-incision over the scrotum which is seperating different layers of the scrotum.
2nd pic: Tuninca vaginalis is completely seperated,then would have made a nick incision & fluid is coming out.
3rd pic(top right corner): There is lot of fluid in kidney tray & still there is lot a fluid in sac .
4th pic : We can clearly see it's Jabouley's procedure in which fluid is evacuated, the sac is everted & sutured behind the testis
Last pic: we can see it's a pressured scrotal dressing.