Human breathing mechanism
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The document summarizes respiration in the human body. It describes how: During inhalation, the internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, expanding the rib cage and increasing the thoracic cavity volume. The diaphragm also contracts, lowering pressure in the alveoli and causing air to move in. During exhalation, the actions reverse, decreasing thoracic cavity volume and raising alveolar pressure to push air out. Oxygen diffuses into the blood in the alveoli due to higher partial pressure, while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli due to lower partial pressure. Oxygen is transported through the blood bound to hemoglobin
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Control of respiration
Like heartbeat, breathing must occur in a continuous, cyclic pattern to sustain life processes.
Inspiratory muscles must rhythmically contract and relax to alternately fill the lungs with air and empty them.
The rhythmic pattern of breathing is established by cyclic neural activity to the respiratory muscles
5) gas exchange and diffusion
lecture 5: it's good for as to take a breif about how does atmospheric air will pass to our lungs then to blood, for transportation and utilization of oxygen and excretion of carbon dioxide. Many issue are related when gas exchange is performed.
Pulmonary ventilation
The document discusses pulmonary ventilation and the steps of respiration. It describes how pulmonary ventilation occurs through the alternating contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles that create pressure differences, causing air to flow into and out of the lungs. The key muscles involved in inhalation are the diaphragm and external intercostals, while exhalation occurs passively through elastic recoil. Factors like surface tension, lung compliance, and airway resistance also affect pulmonary ventilation.
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1) Gas exchange occurs at the lungs between blood and air, and at tissues between blood and tissues, via simple diffusion down partial pressure gradients.
2) The alveolar-capillary membrane is where oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and gas solubility and molecular weight determine diffusion rates.
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Hypoxia :types , causes,and its effects
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these notes are provided by our loving mam MAM SANIA .thanks to teach us mam :)
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dr. Nilesh Kate's document discusses the transport of carbon dioxide in the body. It describes how CO2 moves from cells to blood through diffusion down a partial pressure gradient, and is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved, bicarbonate, and carbamino compounds. The document outlines the roles of hemoglobin, oxygen levels, and temperature in facilitating CO2 transport from tissues to the lungs, where it diffuses into the alveolar air and is exhaled. Key factors like pH regulation and the respiratory quotient are also briefly covered.
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The record is called a spirogram
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The document provides information on the functional anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It discusses the importance of understanding respiratory anatomy and physiology in fields like pulmonology, anesthesiology and critical care. It then describes the processes of external and internal respiration, the structural and functional unit of alveoli, and the roles and functions of various respiratory structures like the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and pleura. It also discusses topics like mucociliary clearance, Kartagener's syndrome, airway innervation, Weibel's model of the tracheobronchial tree and blood supply to the lungs.
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Control of respiration
Like heartbeat, breathing must occur in a continuous, cyclic pattern to sustain life processes.
Inspiratory muscles must rhythmically contract and relax to alternately fill the lungs with air and empty them.
The rhythmic pattern of breathing is established by cyclic neural activity to the respiratory muscles
5) gas exchange and diffusion
lecture 5: it's good for as to take a breif about how does atmospheric air will pass to our lungs then to blood, for transportation and utilization of oxygen and excretion of carbon dioxide. Many issue are related when gas exchange is performed.
Pulmonary ventilation
The document discusses pulmonary ventilation and the steps of respiration. It describes how pulmonary ventilation occurs through the alternating contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles that create pressure differences, causing air to flow into and out of the lungs. The key muscles involved in inhalation are the diaphragm and external intercostals, while exhalation occurs passively through elastic recoil. Factors like surface tension, lung compliance, and airway resistance also affect pulmonary ventilation.
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1) Gas exchange occurs at the lungs between blood and air, and at tissues between blood and tissues, via simple diffusion down partial pressure gradients.
2) The alveolar-capillary membrane is where oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli. Factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and gas solubility and molecular weight determine diffusion rates.
3) Oxygen is transported in blood bound to hemoglobin (98.5%) and dissolved (1.5%). The oxygen content is the total oxygen carried in blood, while the oxygen carrying capacity is the maximum amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry when saturated. Percent hemoglobin saturation indicates how
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Lung volume and capacities
The apparatus used to measure
Volume of air exchanged during breathing
Respiratory rate
The record is called a spirogram
Upward deflection inhalation
Downward deflection exhalation
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The document summarizes gas exchange and oxygen transport in the human body. It discusses how (1) oxygen is extracted from the air and transported via the lungs to the blood, where it is carried by hemoglobin to tissues, and (2) carbon dioxide is transported in reverse from tissues to the lungs. Key aspects covered include alveolar gas transfer, the oxygen cascade, partial pressures of gases, diffusion principles, hemoglobin binding of oxygen and factors affecting it like pH, temperature and carbon monoxide.
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The document discusses the process of respiration and gas exchange. It describes how oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction down their partial pressure gradients. The composition of alveolar air differs from atmospheric air due to the absorption of oxygen from the blood and addition of carbon dioxide. The rate of gas exchange is determined by factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and the partial pressure differences of gases.
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This document defines key terms related to gas exchange and ventilation in the lungs. It discusses functional residual capacity, residual volume, vital capacity, and inspiratory capacity. It defines serial and physiological dead space and how they are measured. It describes how to calculate alveolar ventilation rate given pulmonary ventilation rate, dead space volume, and respiratory rate. It explains the processes of ventilation, perfusion, and the ventilation/perfusion ratio in the lungs.
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The pulmonary circulation has several key characteristics:
1) It has low pressure and resistance but high compliance, allowing the lungs to accommodate large blood volumes.
2) Pulmonary blood flow increases with elevated pulmonary arterial pressure due to recruitment of new vessels and increased vessel distension.
3) Hydrostatic pressures in the lungs vary based on posture, creating three zones of blood flow.
Oxygen dissociation curve
Following induction of anesthesia, factors such as decreased functional residual capacity, increased ventilation/perfusion mismatching, and development of atelectasis can increase venous admixture from 1% to around 10%. Anesthetic agents also suppress hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and decrease cardiac output, reducing oxygen delivery. However, anesthesia and artificial ventilation lower oxygen requirements by around 15-21% due to decreased metabolism and work of breathing. Oxygen is transported in the blood bound to hemoglobin or dissolved in plasma, and the oxygen dissociation curve illustrates hemoglobin's changing affinity for oxygen at different partial pressures. Multiple factors can shift this curve, facilitating either oxygen loading or unloading as needed.
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This document discusses the physiological effects of exposure to high altitudes and deep sea diving. It explains how the body acclimatizes to decreased oxygen levels at high altitude through increased respiration, red blood cell production, angiogenesis and other adaptations. It describes the risks of acute mountain sickness and pulmonary edema if acclimatization does not occur. For deep sea diving, it outlines the risks of nitrogen narcosis and oxygen toxicity at high pressures.
Ventilation perfusion ratio (The guyton and hall physiology)
Ventilation perfusion ratio is :
“The ratio of alveolar ventilation and the amount of blood that perfuse the alveoli”.
FORMULA
It is expressed as VA/Q.
VA is alveolar ventilation
Q is the blood flow (perfusion)
Normal value of ventilation perfusion ratio is about
0.8
VA is 4.2 L /min
Q is 5.5 L/min (Same as Cardiac output)
So VA/Q = 4.2/5.5 = 0.8
If VA becomes zero ratio becomes zero
If Q becomes zero ratio becomes infinite.
If ratio becomes zero or infinite then there is no gaseous exchange. So this ratio indicates the efficiency of gaseous exchange in lungs.
In standing or sitting position this ratio is not uniform in all parts of the lungs.
In standing position, in upper parts of lungs there is almost no blood flow so normally in upper parts of lungs the ratio is higher may be near 3.
In lower part of lungs, there is more blood flow so the ratio is decreased may be 0.6.
In certain diseases the VA/Q ratio is higher which means perfusion is inadequate i.e. in some parts of lungs the alveoli are non functional or partially functional. This is seen in cases of pulmonary thrombosis or embolism.
When there is higher VA/Q ratio, PO2 and PCO2 in the alveolar air resembles the values in the inspired air.
When exchange is not occurring because of lack of perfusion, inspired air goes to alveoli, as there is no exchange occurring so the same values of PCO2 and PO2 as in inspired air.
Compliance of lung
The document discusses lung elastance, compliance, and work of breathing. It defines key terms like elastance, compliance, and surface tension. It describes the elastance of the thoracic cage and lungs, the role of pulmonary surfactant in reducing surface tension, and how compliance is measured. It also explains the different components of work of breathing, including overcoming elastic, viscous, and airway resistance, and how work of breathing is affected in restrictive and obstructive lung diseases.
Chap 40
1. The document discusses the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues. It describes how oxygen is carried by hemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported to tissues where it is released, while carbon dioxide is transported primarily as bicarbonate in the blood and transported to the lungs to be released.
2. The oxygen dissociation curve is explained, showing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen at different partial pressures. Factors like pH, temperature, and 2,3-DPG can shift the curve right or left.
3. Carbon dioxide is transported in three forms - dissolved, as bicarbonate, and bound to hemoglobin. The chloride shift and Bohr and Haldane effects
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The document summarizes key aspects of breathing and respiration in the human body. It explains that (1) cells require oxygen to function, so we must breathe to supply oxygen through the respiratory system. It then (2) outlines the cycle of breathing where air enters the nose and trachea, oxygen diffuses into the blood in the lungs, and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Finally, it (3) describes the major functions and structures of the respiratory system including the lungs, alveoli, and transportation of gases in the bloodstream.
The human breathing mechanism
The document discusses the structure and mechanics of the human respiratory system. It examines factors like intercostal muscles, rib cage size, diaphragm shape, air volume and pressure that affect inhalation and exhalation. A model is presented to demonstrate the process of breathing over time through inhalation and exhalation.
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Physiology of gas exchange
The document summarizes gas exchange and oxygen transport in the human body. It discusses how (1) oxygen is extracted from the air and transported via the lungs to the blood, where it is carried by hemoglobin to tissues, and (2) carbon dioxide is transported in reverse from tissues to the lungs. Key aspects covered include alveolar gas transfer, the oxygen cascade, partial pressures of gases, diffusion principles, hemoglobin binding of oxygen and factors affecting it like pH, temperature and carbon monoxide.
Lung volume and capacities
This document discusses lung volumes and lung capacities, which refer to the volume of air associated with different phases of the respiratory cycle. It outlines the four main lung volumes - tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. It then discusses various lung capacities, which are combinations of two or more lung volumes, including inspiratory capacity, expiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity, and total lung capacity. The document provides normal values for males and females for these volumes and capacities.
6) transport of oxygen and carbon dioxdide
lecture 6: transportaion of both gases need a hemoglobin and part of them are transported by plasma. if Hb is low the saturation of oxygen also low and leads a hypoxia, fatigue, dyspnea, etc. in other hand acidosis can occur.
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The document discusses the process of respiration and gas exchange. It describes how oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction down their partial pressure gradients. The composition of alveolar air differs from atmospheric air due to the absorption of oxygen from the blood and addition of carbon dioxide. The rate of gas exchange is determined by factors like membrane thickness, surface area, and the partial pressure differences of gases.
Ventilation perfusion
This document discusses different types of ventilation in the respiratory system. It defines pulmonary ventilation as the movement of air in and out of the respiratory tract, normally 6 L/minute. Alveolar ventilation is the amount of air used for gas exchange, normally 4.2 L/minute. Dead space is the part of the respiratory tract where no gas exchange occurs, including the anatomical dead space from the nose to terminal bronchioles and the physiological dead space from non-functioning or poorly perfused alveoli. The ventilation-perfusion ratio represents the matching of alveolar ventilation to blood flow for gas exchange.
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Pulmonary ventilation involves the movement of air into and out of the alveoli through the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Muscle activity changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, altering intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures to draw air into the lungs during inhalation and expel it during exhalation. Airflow is affected by airway resistance, which can change based on bronchiole diameter, and lung compliance, maintained by elastic tissues and surfactants. Alveolar ventilation determines the renewal of air in the gas exchange areas to influence oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations.
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This document defines key terms related to gas exchange and ventilation in the lungs. It discusses functional residual capacity, residual volume, vital capacity, and inspiratory capacity. It defines serial and physiological dead space and how they are measured. It describes how to calculate alveolar ventilation rate given pulmonary ventilation rate, dead space volume, and respiratory rate. It explains the processes of ventilation, perfusion, and the ventilation/perfusion ratio in the lungs.
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There are four main types of hypoxia: hypoxic, anemic, stagnant, and histotoxic hypoxia. Each type is characterized by specific changes in arterial oxygen levels, hemoglobin levels, blood flow, and tissue oxygen use. Hypoxic hypoxia involves reduced oxygen at the lung or tissue level, anemic hypoxia occurs when hemoglobin levels decrease, stagnant hypoxia is due to decreased blood flow, and histotoxic hypoxia impacts the tissues' ability to use oxygen. The body responds to hypoxic conditions through acclimatization mechanisms like hyperventilation and increased red blood cell production, though these only partially restore normal oxygen levels. Long-term hypoxemia treatment for lung diseases has been
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One of the academic presentations reflecting the Academic activity at Grande International Hospital, Dhapasi, Kathmandu; an initiative of our HOD of ED, Dr. Ajay Singh Thapa.
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The document summarizes the chemical control of respiration through respiratory chemoreceptors. There are three types of chemoreceptors: peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies that detect changes in arterial pCO2, pO2, and pH; central or medullary chemoreceptors located in the brainstem that are stimulated by increased hydrogen ion concentration in cerebrospinal fluid; and both peripheral and central chemoreceptors work together to maintain homeostasis and stimulate respiration in response to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels in order to regulate respiration.
Pulmonary circulation
The pulmonary circulation has several key characteristics:
1) It has low pressure and resistance but high compliance, allowing the lungs to accommodate large blood volumes.
2) Pulmonary blood flow increases with elevated pulmonary arterial pressure due to recruitment of new vessels and increased vessel distension.
3) Hydrostatic pressures in the lungs vary based on posture, creating three zones of blood flow.
Oxygen dissociation curve
Following induction of anesthesia, factors such as decreased functional residual capacity, increased ventilation/perfusion mismatching, and development of atelectasis can increase venous admixture from 1% to around 10%. Anesthetic agents also suppress hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and decrease cardiac output, reducing oxygen delivery. However, anesthesia and artificial ventilation lower oxygen requirements by around 15-21% due to decreased metabolism and work of breathing. Oxygen is transported in the blood bound to hemoglobin or dissolved in plasma, and the oxygen dissociation curve illustrates hemoglobin's changing affinity for oxygen at different partial pressures. Multiple factors can shift this curve, facilitating either oxygen loading or unloading as needed.
DETERMINANTS AND FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT
This document discusses the determinants and factors affecting cardiac output. It defines cardiac output as the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute, which is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Ejection fraction is explained as the fraction of blood ejected from the ventricles with each heartbeat. Cardiac output can vary due to physiological factors like age, sex, exercise, and pathological factors like fever or shock. Cardiac output is maintained by four main factors - venous return, force of contraction, heart rate, and peripheral resistance. Venous return depends on respiratory pumping, muscle pumping, gravity, and venous pressure.
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This presentation is an overview of the description of the 4 stages of the cardiac cycle (atrial diastole, atrial systole, ventricular systole, ventricular diastole) as well as explaining the mechanism of the cardiac cycle.
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This document discusses the physiological effects of exposure to high altitudes and deep sea diving. It explains how the body acclimatizes to decreased oxygen levels at high altitude through increased respiration, red blood cell production, angiogenesis and other adaptations. It describes the risks of acute mountain sickness and pulmonary edema if acclimatization does not occur. For deep sea diving, it outlines the risks of nitrogen narcosis and oxygen toxicity at high pressures.
Ventilation perfusion ratio (The guyton and hall physiology)
Ventilation perfusion ratio is :
“The ratio of alveolar ventilation and the amount of blood that perfuse the alveoli”.
FORMULA
It is expressed as VA/Q.
VA is alveolar ventilation
Q is the blood flow (perfusion)
Normal value of ventilation perfusion ratio is about
0.8
VA is 4.2 L /min
Q is 5.5 L/min (Same as Cardiac output)
So VA/Q = 4.2/5.5 = 0.8
If VA becomes zero ratio becomes zero
If Q becomes zero ratio becomes infinite.
If ratio becomes zero or infinite then there is no gaseous exchange. So this ratio indicates the efficiency of gaseous exchange in lungs.
In standing or sitting position this ratio is not uniform in all parts of the lungs.
In standing position, in upper parts of lungs there is almost no blood flow so normally in upper parts of lungs the ratio is higher may be near 3.
In lower part of lungs, there is more blood flow so the ratio is decreased may be 0.6.
In certain diseases the VA/Q ratio is higher which means perfusion is inadequate i.e. in some parts of lungs the alveoli are non functional or partially functional. This is seen in cases of pulmonary thrombosis or embolism.
When there is higher VA/Q ratio, PO2 and PCO2 in the alveolar air resembles the values in the inspired air.
When exchange is not occurring because of lack of perfusion, inspired air goes to alveoli, as there is no exchange occurring so the same values of PCO2 and PO2 as in inspired air.
Compliance of lung
The document discusses lung elastance, compliance, and work of breathing. It defines key terms like elastance, compliance, and surface tension. It describes the elastance of the thoracic cage and lungs, the role of pulmonary surfactant in reducing surface tension, and how compliance is measured. It also explains the different components of work of breathing, including overcoming elastic, viscous, and airway resistance, and how work of breathing is affected in restrictive and obstructive lung diseases.
Chap 40
1. The document discusses the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues. It describes how oxygen is carried by hemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported to tissues where it is released, while carbon dioxide is transported primarily as bicarbonate in the blood and transported to the lungs to be released.
2. The oxygen dissociation curve is explained, showing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen at different partial pressures. Factors like pH, temperature, and 2,3-DPG can shift the curve right or left.
3. Carbon dioxide is transported in three forms - dissolved, as bicarbonate, and bound to hemoglobin. The chloride shift and Bohr and Haldane effects
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Human breathing mechanism
- 3. • Internal intercostal muscle • External intercostal muscle • Rib cage • Diaphragm • Volume of thoracic cavity • Air pressure in alveoli • Air moves in @ out
- 4. Internal intercostal muscle relaxed External intercostal muscle contract Rib cage moves upwards & outwards Diaphragm contracts & flattens Volume of thorax cavity increase Pressure in alveoli decrease Air moves in
- 5. Internal intercostal muscle contract External intercostal muscle relaxed Rib cage moves downwards & inwards Diaphragm relaxes Volume of thorax cavity decrease Pressure in alveoli increase Air moves out
- 7. 1. Gaseous Exchange Across Surfaces of Alveolus and Blood Capillaries - The greater the gradient of concentration across respiratory surface, the greater the rate of diffusion - Diffusion of gas depends on the differences in partial pressure between two regions
- 8. 1. Gaseous Exchange Across Surfaces of Alveolus and Blood Capillaries • Partial pressure of 𝑂2 in alveoli is HIGHER than partial pressure of 𝑂2 in blood capillaries • Therefore, 𝑂2 diffuse across the surface of alveolus and blood capillaries into the blood
- 9. • Partial pressure of 𝐶𝑂2 is LOWER in the air of alveoli compared to blood capillaries • Therefore, 𝐶𝑂2 diffuse out of the blood capillaries into the alveoli.
- 10. • Gug summary
- 11. 2. Transport of respiratory gases in humans
- 12. OXYGEN • After gaseous exchange take place, 𝑂2 in blood is transported to body cells for cellular respiration • In blood, 𝑂2 combines loosely with the respiratory pigment called haemoglobin • 𝑂2 is carried in the form of oxyhaemoglobin to all parts of the body Haemoglobin + Oxygen Oxyhaemoglobin not stable !
- 13. HAEMOGLOBIN
- 15. CARBON DIOXIDE • 𝐶𝑂2 released by respiring cells can be transported in three ways: • Most of the bicarbonate ions are carried in the blood plasma to the lungs and diffuse from blood plasma to red blood cells & form carbonic acid again later on breaks down into 𝐶𝑂2
- 17. 3. Gaseous Exchange Between Blood and Body Cells • In tissue capillaries: partial pressure of oxygen in blood is higher • In cells: partial pressure of oxygen is lower (due to cellular respiration) • Hence, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down & release oxygen, which then diffuse through capillary walls into the cell
- 18. 4. Composition of Inhale and Exhale Air