This file is comprised of several hormones of human body along with their sources and mechanisms of action. Each and every gland and their secreting hormones have been covered under this 7 paged file
This document provides an overview of endocrine system hormones. It begins with an introduction and outline. It then covers classifications of hormones, general considerations of hormones, functions of the endocrine system, and mechanisms of hormone action. Specific glands and their secretions are discussed, including the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid hormones, adrenal hormones, pancreatic hormones, and others. Measurement techniques for hormones are also summarized. Key aspects of several hormones like growth hormone, posterior pituitary hormones, and thyroid hormones are highlighted.
This document discusses molecular endocrinology and hormones. It defines endocrinology, describes the major endocrine glands and hormones, and explains hormone structure, synthesis, mechanisms of action, transport, and regulation. Key points include that hormones act as chemical messengers to modify distant organ functions, are produced in one part of the body and carried via circulation to target tissues, and include proteins, peptides, amino acid derivatives, and steroids.
Hormones act as biological regulators through three main levels - the nervous system, hormonal regulation, and intracellular enzymes. There are two main types of hormones - those produced by endocrine glands which enter the bloodstream, and local hormones which regulate tissues locally. Hormones regulate key processes like metabolism, digestion, and ion concentration in the body. They act through receptors on the surface of cells or inside cells, and trigger second messengers that lead to biological responses like protein synthesis. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate other endocrine glands and control numerous bodily functions through hormone release and feedback loops.
This document summarizes research on therapeutic peptides, including their history, development trends, and future directions. It provides an overview of a dataset on therapeutic peptides in clinical studies, covering their physical characteristics, molecular targets, therapeutic uses, and development status. The majority of peptides in development target G-protein coupled receptors and have applications in metabolic disease, oncology, and cardiovascular disease. While peptides once faced challenges like short half-life, research is overcoming these limitations through modified peptides and conjugates with improved properties. The future of peptides in medicine remains promising as the field explores new targets and applications.
Peptide hormones and catecholamines allow for rapid responses to environmental changes. They are stored in secretory vesicles and released via exocytosis within seconds or minutes in response to stimulation. This causes short-term effects that are terminated once the hormones are degraded. In contrast, steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol or thyroglobulin precursors within cells. They diffuse out of cells and circulate in the blood bound to carrier proteins. This allows their effects to last longer, from hours to days, but production and release takes longer than for peptide hormones and catecholamines. The different hormone types thus allow for both rapid short-term responses and longer-term regulatory effects.
Presentation 19 - Chemical Signals In AnimalsMa'am Dawn
Hormones are chemical signals produced by glands that are transported to target organs to induce responses. They bind to receptors in cell membranes or nuclei to exert effects. Hormone levels and receptor function are controlled by feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. The endocrine system regulates processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction through the action of hormones, while the nervous system provides more rapid responses. Diseases can occur if hormone levels become abnormal or receptors are damaged.
Hormones are chemical messengers that coordinate communication between cells and tissues to maintain homeostasis. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and reproductive glands. Hormones can act through either a fixed membrane receptor mechanism where they bind cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers, or a steroid receptor mechanism where they enter cells and bind intracellular receptors to influence gene expression. The thyroid gland produces the hormones T3 and T4 which increase metabolism, growth, and mental processes. Thyroid hormone synthesis is a complex process involving iodine transport, thyroglobulin production, iodination, and hormone
The document summarizes key information about the anterior pituitary gland and growth hormone (GH). It discusses that the anterior pituitary secretes several hormones including GH, which makes up 50% of its secretory cells. GH stimulates growth in nearly all tissues through mediators called somatomedins. The regulation and actions of GH are described, including how abnormalities in GH can lead to conditions like gigantism or acromegaly. Key points about somatomedin synthesis and function are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of endocrine system hormones. It begins with an introduction and outline. It then covers classifications of hormones, general considerations of hormones, functions of the endocrine system, and mechanisms of hormone action. Specific glands and their secretions are discussed, including the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid hormones, adrenal hormones, pancreatic hormones, and others. Measurement techniques for hormones are also summarized. Key aspects of several hormones like growth hormone, posterior pituitary hormones, and thyroid hormones are highlighted.
This document discusses molecular endocrinology and hormones. It defines endocrinology, describes the major endocrine glands and hormones, and explains hormone structure, synthesis, mechanisms of action, transport, and regulation. Key points include that hormones act as chemical messengers to modify distant organ functions, are produced in one part of the body and carried via circulation to target tissues, and include proteins, peptides, amino acid derivatives, and steroids.
Hormones act as biological regulators through three main levels - the nervous system, hormonal regulation, and intracellular enzymes. There are two main types of hormones - those produced by endocrine glands which enter the bloodstream, and local hormones which regulate tissues locally. Hormones regulate key processes like metabolism, digestion, and ion concentration in the body. They act through receptors on the surface of cells or inside cells, and trigger second messengers that lead to biological responses like protein synthesis. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate other endocrine glands and control numerous bodily functions through hormone release and feedback loops.
This document summarizes research on therapeutic peptides, including their history, development trends, and future directions. It provides an overview of a dataset on therapeutic peptides in clinical studies, covering their physical characteristics, molecular targets, therapeutic uses, and development status. The majority of peptides in development target G-protein coupled receptors and have applications in metabolic disease, oncology, and cardiovascular disease. While peptides once faced challenges like short half-life, research is overcoming these limitations through modified peptides and conjugates with improved properties. The future of peptides in medicine remains promising as the field explores new targets and applications.
Peptide hormones and catecholamines allow for rapid responses to environmental changes. They are stored in secretory vesicles and released via exocytosis within seconds or minutes in response to stimulation. This causes short-term effects that are terminated once the hormones are degraded. In contrast, steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol or thyroglobulin precursors within cells. They diffuse out of cells and circulate in the blood bound to carrier proteins. This allows their effects to last longer, from hours to days, but production and release takes longer than for peptide hormones and catecholamines. The different hormone types thus allow for both rapid short-term responses and longer-term regulatory effects.
Presentation 19 - Chemical Signals In AnimalsMa'am Dawn
Hormones are chemical signals produced by glands that are transported to target organs to induce responses. They bind to receptors in cell membranes or nuclei to exert effects. Hormone levels and receptor function are controlled by feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. The endocrine system regulates processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction through the action of hormones, while the nervous system provides more rapid responses. Diseases can occur if hormone levels become abnormal or receptors are damaged.
Hormones are chemical messengers that coordinate communication between cells and tissues to maintain homeostasis. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and reproductive glands. Hormones can act through either a fixed membrane receptor mechanism where they bind cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers, or a steroid receptor mechanism where they enter cells and bind intracellular receptors to influence gene expression. The thyroid gland produces the hormones T3 and T4 which increase metabolism, growth, and mental processes. Thyroid hormone synthesis is a complex process involving iodine transport, thyroglobulin production, iodination, and hormone
The document summarizes key information about the anterior pituitary gland and growth hormone (GH). It discusses that the anterior pituitary secretes several hormones including GH, which makes up 50% of its secretory cells. GH stimulates growth in nearly all tissues through mediators called somatomedins. The regulation and actions of GH are described, including how abnormalities in GH can lead to conditions like gigantism or acromegaly. Key points about somatomedin synthesis and function are also outlined.
The presentation include basics like adrenal gland and functions. Synthesis of glucocorticoids, details of glucocorticoid receptor, Human Glucocorticoid Receptor ultra structure, and domains. The presentation give special preference to its receptor signaling and and biological effects,
The document discusses hormone regulation and action. It summarizes that the hypothalamus controls the anterior and posterior pituitary glands. The anterior pituitary releases hormones that control other endocrine glands like the thyroid. Growth hormone is released from the anterior pituitary and is essential for growth. The thyroid gland releases T3 and T4, which regulate metabolism. Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels. Testosterone and estrogen are the primary sex hormones. Hormones mobilize fuels like glucose and fatty acids during exercise depending on intensity and duration.
There are four major classes of hormones, including steroid hormones. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and include progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens. Steroid hormones are not water soluble and must bind to transport proteins in the bloodstream. They act via intracellular receptors after passing through cell membranes due to their lipophilic nature. The adrenal cortex and gonads produce steroid hormones through pathways involving enzymatic modification of cholesterol and its derivatives.
The thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and its prohormone, thyroxine (T4), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. Iodine is necessary for the production of T3 and T4. A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T3 and T4, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre. The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T4), which has a longer half-life than T3.The ratio of T4 to T3 released into the blood is roughly 20 to 1. T4 is converted to the active T3 (three to four times more potent than T4) within cells by deiodinases (5'-iodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T1a) and thyronamine (T0a). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T3 production.
medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS
#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS
This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion.
The document discusses hormone metabolism and the effects of hormones. It describes how hormones are synthesized in one tissue and transported via bloodstream to target other organs. It discusses hormone classification, receptors, signal transduction, and the metabolic effects of key hormones like insulin, glucagon, catecholamines, and thyroid hormones. Insulin is described in more depth, outlining its effects on metabolism, mechanisms of action, and implications in pathologies like diabetes.
Hormones are chemical substances produced in one part of the body that travel through the bloodstream and cause changes to structures and functions in distant target organs. There are two main types of hormone receptors - cell surface receptors for water-soluble hormones that generate intracellular messengers, and intracellular receptors for lipid-soluble hormones that alter gene expression. Hormones regulate important bodily functions like growth, metabolism, mood, immune response, reproduction, and preparing the body for events like puberty or stress. The effects of hormones are controlled by their rates of secretion, transport, receptor levels in target tissues, and degradation.
The thyroid gland secretes the major hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland. T4 and T3 are bound to plasma proteins and transported throughout the body, where a small unbound fraction exerts biological effects. The thyroid hormones regulate growth, development, metabolism, and other physiological processes. Thyroid function is tested by measuring T3, T4, TSH, and other markers. Disorders like hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can be treated with thyroid hormone supplements or inhibitors.
medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion
Thyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
THYROID HORMONE
Location:
The thyroid gland located below the larynx on each side of and anterior to the trachea.
Largest Endocrine Hormone
Secretion:
secretes:
1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Also secretes calcitonin (an important hormone for calcium metabolism)
Cell: Thyrotopes
secretion is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
93% T4 & 7% T3
T4→T3 in tissues
Qualitatively same
Differ in Rapidity & Intensity of action.
T3 is 4 times more potent than T4, but decrease conc. In blood & decrease half life.
T3 and T4 combine mainly with thyroxine-binding globulin.
More than 90% of Thyroid hormone that binds with cellular receptors is T3.
T4
No effect for 2-3 days after injection
Long Latent Period.
Activity peaks in 10-12 days & ↓↓ with a half life of 15 days.
In some cases it takes 6 weeks-2 months.
T3
4 times rapid
Latent Period 6-12 hours
Peak in 2-3 days
Composed of large numbers of closed follicles filled with colloid and lined with cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of the follicles
The major component of colloid is the large glycoprotein Thyroglobulin contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule.
50mg/year, 1mg/week
Ingested iodine in the form of iodides
Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from GIT
⅕ removed from the blood by thyroid cells for synthesis of hormones; rest excreted through kidneys.
Basal membrane of thyroid cells has an active pump to push iodides to interior (Iodine Pump).
Normally 30% more conc. Inside
Max. active 250% more conc. Inside
The rate of Iodine trapping is influenced by conc. of TSH
TSH stimulates and hypophysectomy greatly diminishes the activity of the iodide pump in thyroid cells.
Hormones have various durations of action, from seconds to months. Their concentrations in blood can be as low as one trillionth of a gram but still exert powerful physiological effects. Hormone levels are regulated through negative feedback loops. The metabolic clearance rate determines how quickly hormones are removed from blood. Hormones are cleared through metabolic destruction, binding to tissues, excretion in bile or urine. They allow communication between tissues through neurological or chemical signals. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into blood while exocrine glands secrete externally. Hormones integrate many metabolic processes. Cells sense changes and secrete chemical messengers to target cells via bloodstream or synaptic cleft. Hormone receptors are located on cell
The document discusses several key topics in endocrine physiology:
1. It describes early endocrine experiments in the 1800s by Berthold and Bernard that helped establish the concepts of hormone targets and homeostasis.
2. It summarizes the major classes of hormones - peptides/proteins, amines, steroids, and eicosanoids - and how they are synthesized and regulated.
3. Feedback control mechanisms, especially negative feedback loops, are a major way the endocrine system regulates hormone production and maintains homeostasis.
1) Hormones are organic substances that regulate growth, metabolism and other functions by acting as biochemical messengers. They can be classified based on their chemical composition and target organs.
2) Hormone action involves processes like synergism, permissiveness, antagonism and feedback loops. Lipid-soluble hormones like steroids directly enter cells and activate genes, while water-soluble hormones trigger intracellular signaling cascades.
3) The document discusses the mechanisms and characteristics of hormone action, including the different classes of receptors, signal amplification pathways, and how lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones elicit their effects on target cells and tissues. Negative and positive feedback loops help regulate hormone secretion.
Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble chemical messengers derived from cholesterol that transport signals between cells. They are synthesized and immediately released near their target cells. Since they are lipid-soluble, steroid hormones diffuse freely into cells and are carried in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins. Within target cells, steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors that act as transcription factors to increase or decrease the expression of specific genes and thereby influence various physiological processes like carbohydrate regulation, mineral balance, and reproductive functions.
Growth hormone is synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It acts directly on tissues throughout the body to stimulate growth. Growth hormone stimulates bone and cartilage growth in children through increasing the production of insulin-like growth factors. It also has effects on protein, carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Disorders of growth hormone secretion or action can result in abnormalities of growth.
Endocrine System and hormonal feedback mechanisms Anirban Kumar
The endocrine system regulates physiological activities through the secretion of chemical messengers called hormones from endocrine glands. Hormones are transported via the bloodstream to target organs and tissues to affect cellular activities. There are different types of hormones classified based on their chemical structure as steroids, peptides, or amines. Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and elicit responses through various mechanisms such as second messenger systems or direct gene expression depending on their chemical properties. This coordinated action of hormones is vital for homeostasis and various metabolic processes in the body.
What is sex hormone ?
Sex hormones are synthesized from cholesterol and secreted throughout a person's lifetime
at different levels.
Male gonads (testes) produce sperm.
Female gonads (ovaries) produce egg.
Fusion of egg and sperm occur via fertilization to produce a zygote.
The zygote undergoes division to become an embryo, which eventually becomes a fetus.
The document discusses the endocrine system and how it regulates processes in the body through hormonal signaling. It describes how hormones bind to target receptors, triggering responses, and the different types of hormones and signaling molecules. The endocrine and nervous systems work together to coordinate responses, with the hypothalamus initiating endocrine signals from the pituitary gland. Negative feedback and hormone pairs help maintain homeostasis.
This document summarizes the biosynthesis of the main categories of hormones: peptides and proteins, steroids, amino acid derivatives, and fatty acid derivatives. It discusses the processes of gene transcription and translation that produce peptide hormones. It explains how steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol in the mitochondria, and their lipid solubility allows diffusion into target cells. Amino acid derivatives include thyroid hormones and catecholamines from tyrosine. Fatty acid derivatives include eicosanoids like prostaglandins. The document also summarizes the mechanisms of action for hydrophilic and lipophilic hormones, including cell surface receptors and nuclear receptors, and signal transduction pathways.
Hormons of endocrain in body of humen patalaaabojodi
The document discusses hormones and the endocrine system. It provides an overview of endocrinology and defines key terms like glands and hormones. It then describes the major endocrine glands like the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sex glands. The relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary is explained. The hormones produced by the pituitary gland and their functions are also summarized.
Hormones act through receptor-mediated pathways. They bind to receptors on target cells and induce responses. There are several types of hormone receptors, including cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors, as well as intracellular/nuclear receptors found within cells. Hormones are synthesized in various glands and organs throughout the body, then travel through the bloodstream to target tissues to exert their effects, such as regulating metabolism, growth, and development. Hormone receptors trigger intracellular signaling cascades that alter cellular functions. Antagonists can block hormone receptors to inhibit their actions.
The presentation include basics like adrenal gland and functions. Synthesis of glucocorticoids, details of glucocorticoid receptor, Human Glucocorticoid Receptor ultra structure, and domains. The presentation give special preference to its receptor signaling and and biological effects,
The document discusses hormone regulation and action. It summarizes that the hypothalamus controls the anterior and posterior pituitary glands. The anterior pituitary releases hormones that control other endocrine glands like the thyroid. Growth hormone is released from the anterior pituitary and is essential for growth. The thyroid gland releases T3 and T4, which regulate metabolism. Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels. Testosterone and estrogen are the primary sex hormones. Hormones mobilize fuels like glucose and fatty acids during exercise depending on intensity and duration.
There are four major classes of hormones, including steroid hormones. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and include progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens. Steroid hormones are not water soluble and must bind to transport proteins in the bloodstream. They act via intracellular receptors after passing through cell membranes due to their lipophilic nature. The adrenal cortex and gonads produce steroid hormones through pathways involving enzymatic modification of cholesterol and its derivatives.
The thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and its prohormone, thyroxine (T4), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. Iodine is necessary for the production of T3 and T4. A deficiency of iodine leads to decreased production of T3 and T4, enlarges the thyroid tissue and will cause the disease known as simple goitre. The major form of thyroid hormone in the blood is thyroxine (T4), which has a longer half-life than T3.The ratio of T4 to T3 released into the blood is roughly 20 to 1. T4 is converted to the active T3 (three to four times more potent than T4) within cells by deiodinases (5'-iodinase). These are further processed by decarboxylation and deiodination to produce iodothyronamine (T1a) and thyronamine (T0a). All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes, thus dietary selenium is essential for T3 production.
medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS
#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS
This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion.
The document discusses hormone metabolism and the effects of hormones. It describes how hormones are synthesized in one tissue and transported via bloodstream to target other organs. It discusses hormone classification, receptors, signal transduction, and the metabolic effects of key hormones like insulin, glucagon, catecholamines, and thyroid hormones. Insulin is described in more depth, outlining its effects on metabolism, mechanisms of action, and implications in pathologies like diabetes.
Hormones are chemical substances produced in one part of the body that travel through the bloodstream and cause changes to structures and functions in distant target organs. There are two main types of hormone receptors - cell surface receptors for water-soluble hormones that generate intracellular messengers, and intracellular receptors for lipid-soluble hormones that alter gene expression. Hormones regulate important bodily functions like growth, metabolism, mood, immune response, reproduction, and preparing the body for events like puberty or stress. The effects of hormones are controlled by their rates of secretion, transport, receptor levels in target tissues, and degradation.
The thyroid gland secretes the major hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland. T4 and T3 are bound to plasma proteins and transported throughout the body, where a small unbound fraction exerts biological effects. The thyroid hormones regulate growth, development, metabolism, and other physiological processes. Thyroid function is tested by measuring T3, T4, TSH, and other markers. Disorders like hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can be treated with thyroid hormone supplements or inhibitors.
medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion
Thyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
THYROID HORMONE
Location:
The thyroid gland located below the larynx on each side of and anterior to the trachea.
Largest Endocrine Hormone
Secretion:
secretes:
1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Also secretes calcitonin (an important hormone for calcium metabolism)
Cell: Thyrotopes
secretion is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
93% T4 & 7% T3
T4→T3 in tissues
Qualitatively same
Differ in Rapidity & Intensity of action.
T3 is 4 times more potent than T4, but decrease conc. In blood & decrease half life.
T3 and T4 combine mainly with thyroxine-binding globulin.
More than 90% of Thyroid hormone that binds with cellular receptors is T3.
T4
No effect for 2-3 days after injection
Long Latent Period.
Activity peaks in 10-12 days & ↓↓ with a half life of 15 days.
In some cases it takes 6 weeks-2 months.
T3
4 times rapid
Latent Period 6-12 hours
Peak in 2-3 days
Composed of large numbers of closed follicles filled with colloid and lined with cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of the follicles
The major component of colloid is the large glycoprotein Thyroglobulin contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule.
50mg/year, 1mg/week
Ingested iodine in the form of iodides
Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from GIT
⅕ removed from the blood by thyroid cells for synthesis of hormones; rest excreted through kidneys.
Basal membrane of thyroid cells has an active pump to push iodides to interior (Iodine Pump).
Normally 30% more conc. Inside
Max. active 250% more conc. Inside
The rate of Iodine trapping is influenced by conc. of TSH
TSH stimulates and hypophysectomy greatly diminishes the activity of the iodide pump in thyroid cells.
Hormones have various durations of action, from seconds to months. Their concentrations in blood can be as low as one trillionth of a gram but still exert powerful physiological effects. Hormone levels are regulated through negative feedback loops. The metabolic clearance rate determines how quickly hormones are removed from blood. Hormones are cleared through metabolic destruction, binding to tissues, excretion in bile or urine. They allow communication between tissues through neurological or chemical signals. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into blood while exocrine glands secrete externally. Hormones integrate many metabolic processes. Cells sense changes and secrete chemical messengers to target cells via bloodstream or synaptic cleft. Hormone receptors are located on cell
The document discusses several key topics in endocrine physiology:
1. It describes early endocrine experiments in the 1800s by Berthold and Bernard that helped establish the concepts of hormone targets and homeostasis.
2. It summarizes the major classes of hormones - peptides/proteins, amines, steroids, and eicosanoids - and how they are synthesized and regulated.
3. Feedback control mechanisms, especially negative feedback loops, are a major way the endocrine system regulates hormone production and maintains homeostasis.
1) Hormones are organic substances that regulate growth, metabolism and other functions by acting as biochemical messengers. They can be classified based on their chemical composition and target organs.
2) Hormone action involves processes like synergism, permissiveness, antagonism and feedback loops. Lipid-soluble hormones like steroids directly enter cells and activate genes, while water-soluble hormones trigger intracellular signaling cascades.
3) The document discusses the mechanisms and characteristics of hormone action, including the different classes of receptors, signal amplification pathways, and how lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones elicit their effects on target cells and tissues. Negative and positive feedback loops help regulate hormone secretion.
Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble chemical messengers derived from cholesterol that transport signals between cells. They are synthesized and immediately released near their target cells. Since they are lipid-soluble, steroid hormones diffuse freely into cells and are carried in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins. Within target cells, steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors that act as transcription factors to increase or decrease the expression of specific genes and thereby influence various physiological processes like carbohydrate regulation, mineral balance, and reproductive functions.
Growth hormone is synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It acts directly on tissues throughout the body to stimulate growth. Growth hormone stimulates bone and cartilage growth in children through increasing the production of insulin-like growth factors. It also has effects on protein, carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Disorders of growth hormone secretion or action can result in abnormalities of growth.
Endocrine System and hormonal feedback mechanisms Anirban Kumar
The endocrine system regulates physiological activities through the secretion of chemical messengers called hormones from endocrine glands. Hormones are transported via the bloodstream to target organs and tissues to affect cellular activities. There are different types of hormones classified based on their chemical structure as steroids, peptides, or amines. Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and elicit responses through various mechanisms such as second messenger systems or direct gene expression depending on their chemical properties. This coordinated action of hormones is vital for homeostasis and various metabolic processes in the body.
What is sex hormone ?
Sex hormones are synthesized from cholesterol and secreted throughout a person's lifetime
at different levels.
Male gonads (testes) produce sperm.
Female gonads (ovaries) produce egg.
Fusion of egg and sperm occur via fertilization to produce a zygote.
The zygote undergoes division to become an embryo, which eventually becomes a fetus.
The document discusses the endocrine system and how it regulates processes in the body through hormonal signaling. It describes how hormones bind to target receptors, triggering responses, and the different types of hormones and signaling molecules. The endocrine and nervous systems work together to coordinate responses, with the hypothalamus initiating endocrine signals from the pituitary gland. Negative feedback and hormone pairs help maintain homeostasis.
This document summarizes the biosynthesis of the main categories of hormones: peptides and proteins, steroids, amino acid derivatives, and fatty acid derivatives. It discusses the processes of gene transcription and translation that produce peptide hormones. It explains how steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol in the mitochondria, and their lipid solubility allows diffusion into target cells. Amino acid derivatives include thyroid hormones and catecholamines from tyrosine. Fatty acid derivatives include eicosanoids like prostaglandins. The document also summarizes the mechanisms of action for hydrophilic and lipophilic hormones, including cell surface receptors and nuclear receptors, and signal transduction pathways.
Hormons of endocrain in body of humen patalaaabojodi
The document discusses hormones and the endocrine system. It provides an overview of endocrinology and defines key terms like glands and hormones. It then describes the major endocrine glands like the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sex glands. The relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary is explained. The hormones produced by the pituitary gland and their functions are also summarized.
Hormones act through receptor-mediated pathways. They bind to receptors on target cells and induce responses. There are several types of hormone receptors, including cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors, as well as intracellular/nuclear receptors found within cells. Hormones are synthesized in various glands and organs throughout the body, then travel through the bloodstream to target tissues to exert their effects, such as regulating metabolism, growth, and development. Hormone receptors trigger intracellular signaling cascades that alter cellular functions. Antagonists can block hormone receptors to inhibit their actions.
physiology of p i t u i tary gland.pptxdrparagbhayal
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, acts as the "master gland" that controls other endocrine glands. It consists of the anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior lobe secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and other functions. These include growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone. The posterior lobe stores and releases antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, which are produced in the hypothalamus. These hormones work through feedback loops to maintain homeostasis.
TSH, a glycoprotein hormone, is composed of alpha and beta subunits that determine receptor specificity. TSH is secreted from the pituitary gland in response to TRH stimulation from the hypothalamus. TRH binds to its receptor, activating a phospholipase C signaling cascade involving IP3, DAG, and calcium, which ultimately leads to increased TSH transcription, translation, and secretion. In the thyroid gland, TSH binding activates adenylate cyclase and increases cAMP, stimulating gene expression and thyroid hormone production and release. TSH levels are regulated by negative feedback from thyroid hormone levels and stimulation by TRH. Chronic TSH receptor stimulation can cause hyperthyroidism as seen in Graves' disease.
Best Hormones and the Endocrine System-1.pptAnthonyMatu1
The endocrine system secretes hormones that act as chemical messengers throughout the body. The document describes the major endocrine glands and hormones, including how hormones are classified, their mechanisms of action, and how they regulate processes like metabolism, growth, and reproduction via feedback loops. Key hormones discussed include insulin, glucagon, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, thyroid hormones, cortisol, and ADH.
Best Hormones and the Endocrine System-1.pptAnthonyMatu1
The endocrine system uses hormones to regulate bodily functions through feedback loops. Hormones are chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream that target and influence distant cells. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes, and pineal gland. Hormones fall into categories like proteins, steroids, and amino acid derivatives. They act through receptors on cells and second messenger systems to elicit metabolic or developmental responses throughout the body.
This document discusses hormones and related drugs. It begins by defining hormones and describing their classification and sites of action. The major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland are then discussed in detail, including growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone. The mechanisms of action, regulation, and clinical uses of growth hormone are summarized. Somatostatin and its analogs octreotide and lanreotide, which inhibit growth hormone secretion, are also described.
This document provides an overview of metabolism and how hormones coordinate and regulate various metabolic processes in the body. It discusses how the nervous and endocrine systems maintain homeostasis and the roles of different organs like the liver, adipose tissue, and brain in metabolism. It also summarizes the feeding and fasting cycles, examples of hormones and their mechanisms of action including second messengers, and how insulin signaling works.
The Endocrine System and Chemical Messenger.pdfHassanhameed33
Animal Form and Function-1
COMMUNICATION_III
The Endocrine System and Chemical Messenger
Lecture Content:
1-Introduction of chemical messenger
2-Chemical Messengers
3-Biochemistry of hormones
4-Characteristics of hormones
5-Feedback control of hormone secretion
6-Mechanism of hormone action (I,II)
The document discusses the endocrine system and various endocrine glands. It provides information on the location and function of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in controlling other endocrine glands. Key glands covered include the thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, and pancreas. For each gland, the document describes their location in the body, the hormones they secrete, and the functions of those hormones in maintaining homeostasis.
The document discusses growth hormone and prolactin. It begins by describing the pituitary gland and its role in controlling other hormone-secreting glands. It then discusses growth hormone, including its structure, secretion, effects on tissues, and disorders related to over- and under-secretion. Growth hormone secretion is stimulated by GHRH and ghrelin. It acts through receptors on tissues to stimulate the JAK-STAT pathway. The document also discusses prolactin, including its structure, regulation of secretion, mechanism of action through the JAK-STAT pathway, and role in breastfeeding.
The document discusses the mode of action and regulation of thyroid hormones. It states that thyroid hormones act by entering cell nuclei and binding with thyroid receptors, initiating gene transcription and protein synthesis. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted from the pituitary gland is the major regulator of thyroid hormone production and release. TSH levels are controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus through a negative feedback loop with thyroid hormones. A number of other factors also influence thyroid secretion.
Thyroid and its pathology (Hypothyroidism).Vikas Reddy
GREEK :- THYREOS – SHIELD ; EIDOS – FORM
1.LOCATION:- Anterior to trachea in between the cricoid cartilage and the suprasternal notch.
2.SHAPE:- It has 2 lobes connected with an isthmus, each lobe in turn has two poles.
3.Weighs around 10-20 gm, highly vascular and soft in consistency.
4. 4 Parathyroid glands which secrete PTH are located posterior to each pole of thyroid
The RLN traverse the lateral border of thyroid gland and must be identified during thyroid surgery to avoid injury and vocal cord paralysis.
Develops from the floor of primitive pharynx during the 3rd week of gestation.
Fetal cells in which developmental transcription factors TTF-1,TTF-2 & PAX-8 are expressed selectively form the thyroid gland ,secondly they result in induction of thyroid specific genes
Tg,TPO,NIS,TSH-R.
Mutations-THYROID AGENESIS & DYSHORMONOGENESIS(CONG. HYPOTHYROIDISM).
The developing gland migrates along the thyroglossal duct to reach its final location in the neck.
LINGUAL THYROID AND THYROGLOSSAL DUCT CYST.
Thyroid hormone synthesis begins at about 11 weeks of gestation.
Until 11 week of gestation and even later, it is the maternal thyroid hormones which cross the placenta to reach the fetus and aid its development.
Therefore a child born to a hypothyroid mother would suffer from features of congenital hypothyroidism.
Secondly if the mother has TSH-R blocking antibodies or has received anti thyroid therapy during pregnancy, might lead to transient congenital hypothyroidism.
Inflammatory mediators are substances that initiate and regulate inflammatory reactions. There are two types of mediators: cell-derived mediators and plasma protein-derived mediators. Mediators include histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and platelet-activating factor. Histamine is stored in mast cells and basophils and is released during inflammatory or allergic reactions. It increases vascular permeability and contracts smooth muscle. Prostaglandins are produced in response to inflammatory stimuli and play a modulatory role in inflammation. Leukotrienes are synthesized from arachidonic acid and contribute to bronchial hyperactivity in asthma. Platelet-activating factor is secreted by various cells and produces
Cell signaling her2 expression in breast cancerOmid Yeganeh
This document discusses cell signaling and HER2 expression in breast cancer. It provides information on:
1) Cell signaling can be mechanical or biochemical based on the type of signal transmitted between cells. Biochemical signals include proteins, lipids, ions and gases.
2) Communication between cells controls growth, differentiation and metabolic processes through direct contact or over short and long distances using signaling molecules called hormones.
3) The HER2 signaling pathway involves tyrosine kinase receptors that activate downstream signaling cascades upon ligand binding, influencing processes like proliferation and survival. Overexpression of HER2 occurs in 20-30% of breast cancers.
4) The PI3K-Akt pathway is an important signaling cascade downstream of HER
This document summarizes various hormones and their functions. It describes the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland including growth hormone, prolactin, gonadotropins, thyroid stimulating hormone, and adrenocorticotropic hormone. It also discusses thyroid hormones, insulin, corticosteroids, and other hormones. For each hormone, the document outlines their physiological functions, regulation, pathological involvement, and clinical uses.
Hormones and related diseases.......pptxAlyaaKaram1
This document discusses hormones, their mechanisms of action, and related diseases. It begins with an introduction to hormones and their roles in the body. Hormones act through receptors on cells and can elicit cellular responses through second messengers like cAMP or calcium. The document then discusses hormone synthesis, storage, release, transport, and the feedback loops that regulate hormone levels. Specific sections cover steroid hormone action, protein hormone signaling, receptors, and examples like insulin. Abnormalities in hormone signaling can cause diseases related to hormone excess or deficiency.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas and reproductive glands. Hormones regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, pregnancy and lactation. Gland secretions are regulated by feedback mechanisms involving the hypothalamus and pituitary. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through synthesis and secretion of hormones which target distant organs and cells.
The document summarizes key information about the thyroid gland, including its location, structure, hormone production, regulation, and functions. Some key points:
- The thyroid gland is butterfly-shaped and located in the neck below the chin. It produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), as well as calcitonin.
- Hormone production involves iodine uptake, oxidation, thyroglobulin synthesis, iodination, and coupling of iodinated tyrosines to form T4 and T3.
- Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by TSH from the pituitary gland, which is influenced by TRH from the hyp
This document discusses the regulation of calcium and phosphorus balance in the body. It explains that calcium and phosphorus balance is principally maintained by parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D (calcitriol), and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23). PTH and calcitriol increase calcium levels while calcitonin, estrogen, and glucocorticoids decrease calcium. FGF23, PTH, and calcitonin lower phosphate levels, while vitamin D helps raise phosphate levels. The document then provides more details on how each of these regulators impacts calcium and phosphorus absorption, reabsorption, excretion, and bone resorption/formation to maintain appropriate levels in extracellular fluid and plasma.
Basic concepts of Prodrug & their application in pharmacy fieldsSHUVAM SAR
Definition of prodrugs along with their uses in pharmacy have been discusses here in brief. Also includes the basic objectives of their formulation with examples.
NSAIDs (Non Steroidal Anti Inflammatory Drugs)SHUVAM SAR
This slide covers the details of NSAIDs, along with their classification based on their chemical structure and mechanisms of action; Also includes their adverse effects and uses.
This slide describes briefly the controlling mechanism to balance the calcium & phosphorous levels within human serum, involving several hormones and other factors; this post carries valuable information regarding this topic and references for further readings.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
1. HORMONES(PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY)
PHYSIOLOGY OF HORMONES -
Source of hormones Hormones Mechanisms of action
Hypothalamus 1. Thyrotropin Releasing
Hormone(TRH)
2. Corticotropin
Releasing
Hormone(CRH)
3. Growth Horomone
Releasing
Hormone(GHRH)
4. Growth Hormone
Inhibitory
Hormone(GHIH)[Som
atostatin]
5. Gonadotropin
Releasing
hormone(GnRH)
1. Following secretion at the median eminence, TRH
travels to the anterior pituitary via the hypophyseal
portal system where it binds to the TRH receptor
stimulating the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone
from thyrotropes through the feed-back control
mechanism and prolactin from lactotropes.
2. CRH acts via 2 distinct G protein-coupled receptors,
namely, CRHR1 and CRHR2. In the anterior
pituitary, CRHR1 mediates the release of ACTH in
response to CRH.
3. GHRH, produced by hypothalamic neurons found
predominantly in the arcuate nucleus, stimulatesGH
secretion by binding to a specific GPCR on
somatotropes.
Upon binding GHRH, the GHRH receptor couples to
Gs to raise intracellular levels of cyclic AMP and
Ca²+, thereby stimulating GHsynthesis and secretion.
4. Somatostatin binds to 5 subtypes of somatostatin
receptors (SSTRs), which are all Gi-protein-coupled
transmembrane receptors that inhibits adenylyl cyclase
upon activation. By inhibiting intracellular cyclic AMP
and Ca2+ and by a receptor-linked distal effect on
exocytosis, SSTRs block cell secretion. SSTR1
mediates an antisecretory effect on growth hormone,
prolactin and calcitonin.
5. It acts via G-protein coupled receptors on
gonadotropes to stimulate synthesis and secretion of
the gonadotropin hormones luteinizing hormone and
follicle-stimulating hormone. These receptors couple
primarily via G-proteins of the Gq/ll family, driving
activation of phospholipases C and mediating GnRH
effects on gonadotropin synthesis and secretion.
2. Source of hormones Hormones Mechanisms of action
Anterior Pituitary 1. Growth hormone(GH)
2. Prolactin(PRL)
3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH,corticotrophin)
4. Melanocyte Stimulating
Hormone(MSH)
5. Gonadotropic
Hormones(follicle stimulating
hormone & luteinizing
hormone)[FSH & LH]
1. growth hormone (hGH) stimulates skeletal growth,
which is accomplished at the epiphyseal plates at
the ends of a growing bone. Growth and
metabolism of epiphyseal plate cells are directly
stimulated by GH and one of its mediators, IGF-I
(insulin-like growth factor).hGH binds to the
human growth hormone receptor (GHR). Upon
binding, hGH causes dimerization of GHR, activation
of the GHR-associated JAK2 tyrosine kinase, and
tyrosyl phosphorylation of both JAK2 and GHR.
These events recruit and/or activate a variety of
signaling molecules, including MAP kinases, insulin
receptor substrates, phosphatidylinositol 3' phosphate
kinase, diacylglycerol, protein kinase C, intracellular
calcium, and Stat transcription factors. These
signaling molecules contribute to the GH-induced
changes in enzymatic activity, transport function, and
gene expression that ultimately culminate in changes
in growth and metabolism.
2. A specific prolactin receptor is expressed on the
surface oftarget cells, which is structurally and
functionally analogousto GH receptor: action is
exerted by transmembrane activationof JAK—
cytoplasmic tyrosine protein kinases and STAT.
3. Acting through MC2 receptors, tetracosactide.
Through alteration of intracellular cAMP concentration
alteration of protein kinase A regulation of cell
function: Ca2+ acting as third messengerin some
situations. ACTH action is mediated not only by
cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), but also
by calcium (Ca2+), both interacting closely through
positive feedback loops to enhance steroid secretion.
4. Melanocyte stimulating hormone acts on melanocortin
receptors, of which five (MC1–5) have been
cloned. These are G protein-coupled receptors
(GPCRs) that activate cAMP synthesis. Melanin
formation is controlled by the MC1 receptor. MC1
and MC3 receptors mediate the immunomodulatory
effect of MSH.
5. Distinct LH and FSH receptors are expressed onthe
target cells. Both are G protein coupled receptors
whichon activation increase cAMP production. This in
turnstimulates gametogenesis and conversion of
cholesterol topregnenolone—the first step in
3. 6. Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone(TSH)
progesterone, testosterone andestrogen synthesis. n
the testes FSH receptor is expressedon seminiferous
(Sertoli) cells while LH receptor is expressedon
interstitial (Leydig) cells. In the ovaries FSH
receptorsare present only on granulosa cells, while
LH receptors arewidely distributed on interstitial cells,
theca cells, preovulatorygranulosa cells and luteal
cells.
6. The TSH receptor present on thyroid cells is a
GPCR whichutilizes the adenylyl cyclase-cAMP
transducer mechanism(by coupling to Gs protein) to
produce its effects. In humanthyroid cells high
concentration of TSH also inducesPIP2 hydrolysis by
the linking of TSH receptor to Gq protein.The
resulting increase in cytosolic Ca2+ and protein
kinase Cactivation may also mediate TSH action,
particularlygeneration of H2O2 needed for oxidation
of iodide andiodination of tyrosil residues.
Posterior pituitary
Gland
1. Vasopressin or Anti Diuretic
Hormone(ADH)
2. Oxytocin
1. There are three classes of receptor: V1A, V1B
and V2. All are GPCRs. V2 receptors stimulate
adenylyl cyclase, which mediates the main
physiological actions of vasopressin in the
kidney, where as the V1A and V1B receptors
are coupled to the phospholipase C/inositol
trisphosphate system. The receptor for
oxytocin(OTreceptor) is also a GPCR, which
primarily signals through phospholipase C
stimulation but has a secondary action on
adenylyl cyclase. Vasopressin is a partialagonist
at OT but its effects are limited by the
distribution of the receptor, which, as might be
inferred from its classic action on the pregnant
uterus, is high in the myometrium, endometrium,
mammary gland and ovary.
2. Action of oxytocin onmyometrium is independent of
innervation. Thereare specific G-protein coupled
oxytocin receptorswhich mediate the response
mainly by depo-larization of muscle fibres and
influx of Ca2+ ions as well as through
phosphoinositide hydrolysisand IP3 mediated
intracellular release of Ca2+ ions.The number of
oxytocin receptors increasesmarkedly during later
part of pregnancy. Oxytocinincreases PG synthesis
and release by theendometrium which may
contribute to thecontractile response. Distinct
subtypes of oxytocinreceptors have been shown
on the myometriumand the endometrium.
4. Thyroid Gland 1. Thyroxin(T4)or
Tetraiodothyronine &
Triiodothyronine(T3)
2. Calcitonin
1. Both T3 and T4 penetrate cells by active
transportand produce majority of their actions by
combiningwith a nuclear thyroid hormone receptor
(TR)which belongs to the steroid and
retinoidsuperfamily of intracellular receptors. In contrast
to the steroid receptor, the TRresides in the nucleus
even in the unligandedinactive state. It is bound to
the ‘thyroid hormoneresponse element’ (TRE) in the
enhancer regionof the target genes along with
corepressors.When T3 binds to the ligand-binding
domain ofTR, it heterodimerizes with retinoid X
receptor(RXR) and undergoes a conformation
changereleasing the corepressor and binding
thecoactivator. This induces gene transcription
→production of specific mRNA and a specificpattern
of protein synthesis → various metabolicand anatomic
effects.
2. The actions of calcitonin are mediated througha G-
protein coupled calcitonin receptor (CTR)and
increase in cAMP formation, but its targetcells are
different from that of PTH.
Parathyroid Gland Parathyroid Hormone(PTH) The PTH receptor is a G protein coupled receptor
which on activationincreases cAMP formation and
intracellular Ca2+in target cells. In bone, the target
cell is the osteo-blast because PTH receptors are not
expressedon the surface of osteoclasts. Acting on
theosteoblast, PTH induces a factor ‘Receptor
foractivation of nuclear factor-κB-ligand’
(RANKL)which diffuses and combines with RANK
onosteoclast precursors and transforms them
intoosteoclasts as well as activates osteoclasts
(Fig.24.2). In addition, birth rate of bone
remodelingunits into which osteoclasts are recruited
isenhanced. Formation of the remodeling pit isfollowed
by osteoblastic deposition of new boneinto it. PTH
enhances proliferation anddifferentiation of preosteoblasts
and depositionof osteoid as well. Bone resorption
predominateswhen high concentrations of PTH are
presentcontinuously, but intermittent exposure to
lowconcentrations has the opposite effect.
5. Stomach Gastrin Gastrin binds to cholecystokinin B receptors to
stimulate the release of histamines in
enterochromaffin-like cells, and it induces the
insertion of K+
/H+
ATPase pumps into the
apical membrane of parietal cells (which in
turn increases H+
release into the stomach
cavity).
Small Intestine 1. Secretin
2. Cholecystokinin(CCK)
1. Human secretin is a ligand at G-protein coupled
secretin receptors which are expressed in the
basolateral domain of several tissue cell types,
including pancreas, stomach, liver, colon and other
tissues. Upon interaction, levels of cAMP increase
and initiates the cAMP-mediated signalling cascade
that results in phosphorylation of protein kinase A
(PKA) and activation of cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR).
Activation of CFTR activates Cl-/HCO3- anion
exchanger 2 and leads to secretion of bicarbonate-
rich-pancreatic fluid. Via the same cAMP signalling
pathway, secretin promotes the secretion of water
and electrolytes in cholangiocytes.
2. Receptor occupancy leads to phosphotidylinositide
breakdown and Ca2+ mobilization. Recent studies
with the fluorescent chelate probe Quin-2 have
shown that CCK increases cytosolic Ca2+ from a
basal level of 100 nM to 500 approximately 1000
nM. The effects of Ca2+, and diacylglycerol
produced by the breakdown of phosphoinositides, are
believed mediated by activation of a group of protein
kinases and phosphatases. It stimulates the acinar
cells of the pancreas to release a juice rich in
pancreatic digestive enzymes (hence an alternate
name, pancreozymin) that catalyze the digestion of
fat, protein, and carbohydrates.
Pancreas 1. Insulin(β cells) 1. The binding of insulin to the alpha subunit of IR
stimulates the tyrosine kinase activity intrinsic to the
beta subunit of the receptor. The bound receptor is
able to autophosphorylate and phosphorylate
numerous intracellular substrates such as insulin
receptor substrates (IRS) proteins, Cbl, APS, Shc
and Gab 1. These activated proteins, in turn, lead
to the activation of downstream signaling molecules
including PI3 kinase and Akt. Akt regulates the
activity of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and
protein kinase C (PKC) which play a critical role in
metabolism and catabolism. Insulin stimulates glucose
transport across cell membrane by ATP dependent
translocation of glucose transporter GLUT4 to the
plasma membrane.
6. 2. Glucagon(α cells) 2. Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor activating
Gsα and Gq. This activation activates adenylate
cyclase, which increases intracellular cyclic AMP and
activates protein kinase A. Activating Gq activates
phospholipase C, increases production of inositol
1,4,5-triphosphate, and releases intracellular
calcium. Protein kinase A phosphorylates glycogen
phosphorylase kinase, which phosphorylates glycogen
phosphorylase, which phosphorylates glycogen,
causing its breakdown.
Adrenal gland
(cortex)
1. Glucocorticoids
2. Mineralocorticoids(principally
aldosterone)
1. The glucocorticoid effects are initiated by interaction of
the drugs with specific intracellular glucocorticoid
receptors belonging to the nuclear receptor superfamily.
This superfamily also includes the receptors for
mineralocorticoids, the sex steroids, thyroid hormones,
vitamin D3 and retinoic acid. The actual mechanism of
transcriptional control is complex, with atleast four
mechanisms operating within the nucleus.
2. Aldosterone acts through specific intracellular receptors
of the nuclear receptor family. Unlike the glucocorticoid
receptor, which is present in most cells, the
mineralocorticoid receptor is restricted to a few tissues,
such as the kidney and the transporting epithelia of
the colon and bladder. Cells containing
mineralocorticoid receptors also contain the 11β-
hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme, which
converts hydrocortisone(cortisol) into inactive cortisone,
but does not inactivate aldosterone. The interaction of
aldosterone with its receptor initiates transcription and
translation of specific proteins, resulting in an increase
in the number of sodium channels in the apical
membrane of the cell, and subsequently an increase in
the number of Na+-K+ ATPase molecules in the
basolateral membrane, causing increased K+ excretion.
In addition to the genomic effects, there is evidence
for a rapid nongenomic effect of aldosterone on Na+
influx, through an action on the Na+-H+ exchanger in
the apical membrane.
Adrenal gland
(medulla)
1. Epinephrine
2. Norepinephrine
1. Epinephrine acts on alpha and beta-adrenergic
receptors. Important effects of epinephrine include
increased heart rate, myocardial contractility, and renin
release via beta-1 receptors. Beta-2 effects produce
bronchodilation.
2. Norepinephrine functions as a peripheral vasoconstrictor
by acting on α adrenergic receptors. It is also an
inotropic stimulator of the heart and dilator of coronary
arteries as a result of it's activity at the β adrenergic
7. receptors.
Testes(male) Testosterone The androgen receptor exists in the cytoplasm bound
to the heat shock proteins HSP90, HSP70, and other
chaperones. After binding to an androgen, the
androgen receptor dissociates from HSP90 and
undergoes a conformational change to slow the rate of
dissociation from the androgen receptor. The
androgen-receptor complex is transported into the
nucleus where it binds to DNA and recruits other
transcriptional regulators to form a pre-initiation
complex and eventually induce expression of specific
genes. Testosterone antagonizes the androgen receptor
to induce gene expression that causes the growth and
development of masculine sex organs and secondary
sexual characteristics.
Ovary(female) 1. Estrogen(Estradiol)
2. Progesterone
1. Estradiol works by binding to subtypes of the estrogen
receptor: estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and estrogen
receptor beta (ERβ). It also exerts potent agonism of
G Protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), which
is recognized an important regulator of this drug's
rapid effects. Once the estrogen receptor has bound
to its ligand, it enters the nucleus of the target cell,
regulating gene transcription and formation of of
messenger RNA. This mRNA makes contact with
ribosomes producing specific proteins that express the
effect of estradiol upon the target cell.
2. Progesterone receptor (PR) is a member of the
nuclear/steroid hormone receptor (SHR) family of
ligand-dependent transcription factors that is expressed
primarily in female reproductive tissue as well as the
central nervous system. The PR exists in a short
(PR-A) and a longer (PR-B)isoforms. The two
have differing activities, but because theligand binding
domain of both is identical, all agonists andantagonists
display similar binding properties for them. As a result
of its binding its associated steroid hormone,
progesterone, the progesterone receptor (PR)
modulates the expression of genes that regulate the
development, differentiation, and proliferation of target
tissues. Progesterone also acts on cell
membranereceptors in certain tissues and produces
rapid effects, likeCa2+ release from spermatozoa and
oocyte maturation,