Melatonin is a hormone made in the body. It regulates night and day cycles or sleep-wake cycles. Melatonin in supplements is usually made in a lab.
Darkness triggers the body to make more melatonin, which signals the body to sleep. Light decreases melatonin production and signals the body to be awake. Some people who have trouble sleeping have low levels of melatonin. It's thought that adding melatonin from supplements might help them sleep.
Melatonin is a hormone made in the body. It regulates night and day cycles or sleep-wake cycles. Melatonin in supplements is usually made in a lab.
Darkness triggers the body to make more melatonin, which signals the body to sleep. Light decreases melatonin production and signals the body to be awake. Some people who have trouble sleeping have low levels of melatonin. It's thought that adding melatonin from supplements might help them sleep.
This presentation includes information about secretion of glucagon, inhibitors, regulation of secretion, mechanism of action & actions of glucagon. It also includes ways to prevention of occurrence of hyperglycemia.
Steroid hormones can be grouped into 2 classes, corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence cortico-) and sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta).
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that sit at the top of the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline. They also produce androgens in their innermost cortical layer. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, and recent data (1998) suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within normal adrenal glands, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
This presentation includes information about secretion of glucagon, inhibitors, regulation of secretion, mechanism of action & actions of glucagon. It also includes ways to prevention of occurrence of hyperglycemia.
Steroid hormones can be grouped into 2 classes, corticosteroids (typically made in the adrenal cortex, hence cortico-) and sex steroids (typically made in the gonads or placenta).
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that sit at the top of the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline. They also produce androgens in their innermost cortical layer. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, and recent data (1998) suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within normal adrenal glands, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
this presentation is about adrenal gland steroidogenesis and it also includes pathways of testosterone synthesis and its enzymes and mecahnism of actions
in this slide u are able to well known about the introduction of hormones.
categories, classification, function, structure, regulation, location, mechanism of action, how hormone regulates our body function, how it maintains the homeostasis condition.
structure of hormones.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2. Hormones are chemical messengers that transport
signals from one cell to another
There are 4 major chemical classes of hormones
• steroid hormones - i.e. progesterone
• peptide hormones - i.e. insulin
• amino acid derivatives - epinephrine
• prostaglandins and related compounds
Chemical Classification of
Hormones
3. Mechanism of Hormone
Action
All hormone action is receptor mediated
1. Peptide hormones and catecholamines bind to cell
surface receptors
2. Steroid and thyroid hormones act via intracellular
receptors
5. Steroids are lipophilic molecules.
All steroids, except calcitriol, have
cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene
structure (sterane).
Structure of Steroid
Hormones
The parental precursor of
steroids - cholesterol
6. Steroid Hormones
Are not packaged, but synthesized and immediately
released.
Are all derived from the same parent compound:
cholesterol.
Enzymes which produce steroid hormones from
cholesterol are located in mitochondria and smooth
ER.
Steroids are lipid soluble and thus are freely
permeable to membranes so are not stored in cells.
7. Steroid Hormones
Are not water soluble so have to be carried in the
blood complexed to specific binding globulins.
Corticosteroid binding globulin carries cortisol.
Sex steroid binding globulin carries testosterone and
estradiol.
In some cases a steroid is secreted by one cell and
is converted to the active steroid by the target cell:
(androgen is secreted by the gonad and converted
into estrogen in the brain).
8. Steroid hormones
Steroid hormones play important roles in:
- carbohydrate regulation (glucocorticoids)
- mineral balance (mineralocorticoids)
- reproductive functions (gonadal steroids)
Steroids also play roles in inflammatory responses,
stress responses, bone metabolism, cardiovascular
fitness, behavior, cognition, and mood.
9. Adrenal cortex
• Composed of 3 layers (zones):
• outer zone (zona glomerulosa) produces aldosterone
(mineralocorticoid)
• middle zone (zona fasciculata) produces cortisol
(glucocorticoid)
• inner zone (zona reticularis) produces androgens
Corpus luteum and ovary
• produce progesteron and estradiol
Testes
• produces testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
Steroid Hormones
12. • A progestin, produced directly from
pregnenolone.
• Secreted from the corpus luteum.
• Maintains (with estradiol) the uterine
endometrium for implantation.
• Differentiation factor for mammalian
glands.
Progesterone (C-21)
• Female: regulates gonadotrope secretion
in ovarian cycle.
• Maintains (with progesterone) uterine
endometrium.
• Differentiation of mammalian gland.
• Responsible for secondary female sex
characteristics.
•Male: negative feedback inhibitor of Leydig
cell synthesis of testosterone.
Estradiol (C-18)
13. • After conversion to dihydrotestosterone,
production of sperm proteins in Sertoli cells.
• Responsible for secondary male sex
characteristics.
• Produced from progesterone.
Testosterone (C-19)
Dehydroepiandrosterone
• Week androgen, which can be
converted to estrogen.
• Various protective effects. It may play a
role in the aging process.
• Regulates NAD+ coenzymes.
14. Cortisol
(C-21)
• Dominant glucocorticoid in humans,
synthesized from progesterone in the zona
fasciculata of the adrenal cortex.
• Stress adaptation through various cellular
phenotypic expression, stress adaptation.
• Slight elevation of liver glycogen. Numerous
effects on the immune system, killing effect on
certain T cells in high doses.
• Na+ uptake in epithelia lumen.
Aldosterone (C-21)
• The principal mineralocorticoid.
• Produced from progesterone in the
zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex.
• Causes sodium ion uptake via
conductance channel.
• Occures in high levels during stress.
Rises blood pressure and fluid volume.
15. 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (Calcitriol)
• Causes synthesis of Ca2+ transport protein.
• Regulates calcium and phosphorus homeostasis.
16. Biosynthesis of Steroid
Hormones
Peptide hormones are encoded by specific genes;
steroid hormones are synthesized from the
enzymaticaly modified cholesterol.
Thus, there is no gene which encodes individual
hormone.
The regulation of steroidogenesis involves control of
the enzymes which modify cholesterol into the
steroid hormone of interest.
17. Sources of Cholesterol for Steroid
Synthesis
Cholesterol can be made within the cell from acetyl CoA
(de novo synthesis).
This is a multistep process, involving many enzymatic
reactions.
A key rate-limiting enzyme is HMG-CoA reductase.
There is negative feedback regulation of HMG-CoA
reductase activity by cholesterol, so that high intracellular
cholesterol inhibits de novo synthesis.
acetyl CoA HMG-CoA mevalonate cholesterol
HMG-CoA reductase
18. Sources of Cholesterol for Steroid
Synthesis
Cholesterol is also taken up by the cell in the form of
low density lipoprotein (LDL).
- LDL is a complex composed of cholesterol,
phospholipids, triglycerides, and proteins (proteins
and phospholipids make LDL soluble in blood).
- LDL is taken into cells via LDL receptors, and
broken down into esterified cholesterol, and then
free cholesterol:
19. • Mitochondrial side chain cleavage enzyme
cholesteroldesmolase initiates the synthesis of
the progestins.
• It hydroxylates C 20 and 22 and involves the
cleavage of a 6-carbon group from cholesterol
(isocaproic aldehyde).
• This reaction require cytochrom P- 450 as an
intermediate electron carrier (integral part of the
inner mitochondrial membrane, a flavoprotein
containing both FAD and FMN).
• Electron pass from the reduced NADPH to FAD,
then to FMN and finally to an O2
22
20
Isocaproic aldehyde
20. Hormonal Stimulation Of Steroid Hormone
Biosynthesis
• Hormone stimulation depends
on the cell type and receptor
(ACTH for cortisol synthesis,
FSH for estradiol synthesis, LH
for testosterone synthesis etc.)
• Hormone binds to cell
membrane receptor and activates
adenylate cyclase mediated by a
stimulatory G protein.
• Receptor, activated by
hormone, may directly stimulate
a calcium channel or indirectly
stimulate it by activating the
phosphatidylinositol (PI) cycle.
•
21. • The increase in cAMP
activates protein kinase
whose phosphorylations cause
increased hydrolysis of
cholesteryl esters from droplet
to free cholesterol and increase
cholesterol transport into the
mitochodrion.
• Elevated Ca 2+ levels and
protein phophorylation bring
about induced levels of the
side chain cleavage reaction.
• Steroid is produced, secreted
into the extracellular space and
circulated to the target tissue in
the bloodstream
Hormonal Stimulation Of Steroid Hormone
Biosynthesis
22. Biosynthesis of Steroid
Hormones
Critical step is the cell activity in mobilizing
cholesterol stored in a droplets, transport of
cholesterol to mitochondrion.
The rate-limiting step is the rate of cholesterol side
chain cleavage in mitochondrion by enzymes
known as the cytochrome P450 side chain
cleavage enzyme complex.
23. Steroidogenic Enzymes
Common name „Old“ name Current name
Cholesteroldesmolase
(Side-chain cleavage enzyme)
P450SCC CYP11A1
3b-hydroxysteroid dehydroge-
nase
3 b-DH 3 b-DH
17a-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase P450C17 CYP17
21-hydroxylase P450C21 CYP21A2
11b-hydroxylase P450C11 CYP11B1
Aldosterone synthase P450C11AS CYP11B2
Aromatase P450aro CYP19
24. corticosteroids
The term corticosteroids refers to steroid hormones secreted by the
adrenal cortex.
Corticosteroids are involved in a wide range of physiologic systems
such as stress response, immune response, and regulation of
inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood
electrolyte levels, and behavior.
Drugs belonging to this class are:
glucocorticoids :- hydrocortisone, 11-dehydrocorticosterone, corticosterone),
mineralocorticoids :- aldeosterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone, 11-deoxy-17-
oxycorticosterone)
sex hormons :- androsterone, androstendion, estrone, progesterone).
25. Zona glomerulosa cells lack the P450c17 that converts pregnenolone and progesterone to their
C17 hydroxylated analogs. Thus, the pathways to the glucocorticoids and the androgens are
blocked.
Steroids of the
Adrenal Cortex
http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/steroid-hormones.html
Mitochondria
26. Steroid Hormones of the
Gonades
• Hormones that affect the development
of the reproductive organs and sexual
characteristics.
27. Testes
Leydig cells produce:
• Testosterone
Sertoli cells produce:
• dihydrotestosterone (DHT) – but most of conversion of
testosterone to DHT occurs outside the testes.
• 17-b-estradiol – a small amount of testosterone is also
converted into estradiol by aromatization (inhibits testosterone
synthesis)
• inhibin – polypeptide hormone, which inhibits FSH releasing
FSH binds to the Sertoli cells and stimulates the synthesis of
androgen-binding protein (ABP). ABP binds testosterone
(produced by Leydig cells) and transports it to the site of
spermatogenesis.
28. http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/steroid-hormones.html
• In a number of target tissues,
testosterone can be converted to
dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
• DHT is the most potent of the male
steroid hormones, with an activity that
is 10 times that of testosterone.
• Because of its relatively lower
potency, testosterone is sometimes
considered to be a prohormone.
Gonadal Steroid Hormones
29. Estrogens are formed by aromatization of androgens.
Aromatase is a complex endoplasmic reticulum enzyme found in the
ovary and in numerous other tissues in both males and females. Its action
involves hydroxylations and dehydrations that culminate in aromatization
of the A ring of the androgens.
Synthesis of Estrogens
30. Ovaries
17-b-estradiol is the main hormone produced during the
follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.
After ovulation progesterone is made by follicular cells, which
now constitute the corpus luteum.
Steroid
hormone
Steroid producing
cells
Signal Second
messenger
Signal system
Testosterone Leydig cells LH cAMP Hypothalamic-pituitary
17-b-
Estradiol
Granulosa cells FSH cAMP Hypothalamic-pituitary
Progesterone Corpus luteum LH cAMP Hypothalamic-pituitary
Regulation of Sex Hormones Synthesis
32. 1a-hydroxylation is the rate-limiting step in calcitriol
synthesis
Calcitriol
- increases uptake of Ca2+ and phosphate from the
intestine
- stimulates calcium binding protein synthesis
Regulation of 1a-hydroxylase
Activation Inhibition
Hypocalcemia
Parathroid hormone
Hypophosphatemia
Calcitriol
Calcitriol - 1,25 (OH)2-D3
33. Schematic model to describe the action of 1,25-
(OH2)D3 in the intestine in stimulating intestinal
calcium transport.
Copy from Devlin T.M.: Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlations
34. Transport of Hormones
in the Bloodstream
Steroids are lipophilic molecules they are
bound to protein carriers in the blood
Protien carriers are
• Albumin
• Corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) or transcortin
• Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)
• Androgen binding protein (ABP)
Only the free fraction is biologically active (usually less than
10%)
Carrier-
bound
hormone
Endocrine
cell
Free
hormone
Hormone
Receptor
Hormone
degradation Biological
effects
35. Hormone half life
Steroids and thyroid hormone, which are
bound to plasma proteins, have a long half life (~
hours)
Peptides and catecholamines are water-
soluble, they are transported dissolved in plasma
generally have a very short half life (~ seconds
to minutes)
36. Transport of Adrenal
Steorid Hormones in the
Bloodstream
CORTISOL
70% is bound to corticosteroid
binding globulin (transcortin)
22% of cortisol is bound to albumin
8% free cortisol
ALDOSTERONE
60% of aldosterone is bound to
albumin
10 % is bound to transcortin
A small amount of aldosterone is
bound to other plasma
proteins
Transcortin is produced in the liver and its synthesis is increased by
estrogens.
Hormone bound to transport proteins are protect from metabolism and
inactivation.
Transport proteins assist in maintaining a level of hormones in circulation.
37. Transport of Sex Hormones in
the Bloodstream
Testosterone & estradiol bind to sex hormone binding globulin
(SHBG).
Progesterone binds to transcortin.
Affinity of SHBG for testosterone is higher than for estradiol.
• Before puberty - the level of SHBG is about the same in males and
females .
• At the puberty - there is a small decrease in the level of circulating
SHBG in females and larger decrease in males, insuring relatively
greater amount of the unbound, biologically active sex hormones.
• In adults, males have half of the amount of SHBG than females.
• Testosterone lowers SHBG levels in blood, whereas estradiol raises
SHBG levels.
38. Mechanism of Steroid
Hormone Action
• Steroid hormones are soluble
in the plasma membrane and
readily enter the cytosol.
• Steroids bind to intracellular
receptor either in the cytosol
or in the nucleus.
• The hormone-receptor
complex acts as a
transcription factor which
turns on / turns off the genes.
Copy from Devlin T.M.: Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlations
39. • Messenger RNA is
transcribed, leaves the
nucleus, and is translated into
a specific protein by ribosome.
• The specific proteins then
carry out function in the target
cell.
• Because steroid hormones
initiate protein synthesis their
effects are produced more
slowly, but are more long-
lasting than those produced by
other hormones.
Mechanism of Steroid
Hormone Action
40. Hormone Catabolism and
Excretion
• Inactivation of steroids involves
reductions and conjugation to
glucuronides or sulfate to increase
their water solubility.
• Most are catabolized by the liver and
kidneys.
• 70% of the conjugated steroids are
excreted in the urine, 20 % leave in
feces and rest exit through the skin.
3
estron-3sulfate
41. Structure-Activity Relationships
Natural Corticosteroids
4,5 double bond and a 3-ketone group are must for typical steroid
activity.
A hydroxyl group on C11 is needed for glucocorticoid activity
(corticosterone) but is not required for sodium-retaining activity
(desoxycorticosterone).
The addition of a hydroxyl group on C17, (which converts
corticosterone to cortisol,) also increases glucocorticoid activity.
42. Synthetic Corticosteroids
Ring A
double bond at the 1,2 position increases the ratio of carbohydrate
to sodium-retaining potency.
Ring B
The inclusion of methyl group in position 6 of prednisolone will yield
6--methylprednisolone, a compound with slightly greater
glucocorticoid potency.
It also greatly diminishes the binding of methylprednisolone to
transcortin.
Structure-Activity Relationships
43. Ring C
The addition of a fluoride group on the 9 position of cortisol to give
9--fluorocortisol will greatly increase all biological activity.
Ring D
Hydroxylation or methylation at the 16 position of -
fluoroprednisolone to give triamcinolone, dexamethasone, or
betamethasone increases antiinflammatory potency and drastically
diminishes sodium-retaining activity.
Structure-Activity Relationships
44. The major therapeutic classes of steroids are the following:
• Anti-infl ammatory agents: Cortisone
• Sex hormones: Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone
• Oral contraceptives: Norethisterone
• Cardiac steroids: Digitoxigenin
• Diuretics: Spironolactone
• Antibiotics: Fusidic acid
• Neuromuscular blockers: Pancuronium chloride
• Vitamin D precursor: Ergosterol
60. The major pharmacological activities of the glucocorticoids
are anti-inflammation, inhibition of cytokines, and inhibition of
mast cell release of autocoids.
The anti-inflammatory activity of the glucocorticoids is derived
from their ability to affect protein synthesis. Specifically, they
stimulate the synthesis of lipocortin, a protein that inhibits
phospholipase A2, which is an enzyme that catalyzes the
breakdown of membranes to release arachidonic acid, the
first step in the arachidonic acid cascade that results in the
production of inflammatory prostaglandins and
leukotrienes.Therefore, inhibition of phospholipase A2
ultimately results in the reduction of the inflammatory
prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
61. A second anti-inflammatory mechanism of glucocorticoids
involves inhibition of IL-1. IL-1 stimulates the
proliferation of T and B lymphocytes that are responsible
for the production of the cytokines and antibodies, which
in turn are important in the inflammatory and immune
responses to antigens.
The glucocorticoids, by their ability to inhibit IL-1, cause a
decrease in T and B lymphocytes, leading to
immunosuppression, and therefore must be used with caution
in patients with infection.
A third action of glucocorticoids is to inhibit the synthesis
and release of histamine and other autocoids from mast
cells.
62. The glucocorticoids, such as hydrocortisone (also known as
cortisol), are biosynthesized and released under the influence
of peptide hormones secreted by the hypothalamus
(corticotropin releasing factor (CRF))and anterior pituitary
(ACTH) (adenohypophysis) to activate the adrenal cortex (the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal [HPA] axis).
On the other hand, the secretion of the mineralocorticoids,
corticosterone and aldosterone, is under the influence of the
octapeptide, angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is the active
metabolite resulting from the renin-catalyzed proteolytic
hydrolysis of plasma angiotensinogen to angiotensin I in the
blood.
63. Glucocorticoids bind to cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptors
containing two subunits of the heat shock protein that belong
to the 90-kDa family.
The heat shock protein dissociates, allowing rapid nuclear
translocation of the receptor–steroid complex.
Within the nucleus, the glucocorticoid receptor induces gene
transcription by binding to specific sequences on DNA called
glucocorticoid response elements in the promoter– enhancer
regions of responsive genes .
In certain cases, the glucocorticoid receptor can interact with
nuclear factor-B and AP-1 to inhibit gene expression activated
by these proinflammatory transcription factors.
64. The glucocorticoids increase blood glucose and liver glycogen
levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis.
The source of this augmented carbohydrate production is
protein, and the protein catabolic actions of the
glucocorticoids result in a negative nitrogen balance.
The inhibition of protein synthesis by glucocorticoids brings
about a transfer of amino acids from muscle and bone to liver,
where amino acids are converted to glucose.
65. Glucocorticoids not only break down protein but also
stimulate the catabolism of lipids in adipose tissue and
enhance the actions of other lipolytic agents. This occurrence
results in an increase in plasma free fatty acids and an
enhanced tendency to ketosis.
Glucocorticoids directly stimulate cardiac output and
potentiate the responses of vascular smooth muscle to the
pressor effects of catecholamines and other vasoconstrictor
agents. Such actions on vascular smooth muscle may be
secondary to effects mediated through the central nervous
system or on circulating volume. However, the presence of
steroid receptors on vascular smooth muscle suggests a
direct effect on vasomotor activity
66. Mineralocorticoids bind to the mineralocorticoid receptor in the
cell cytosol, and are able to freely cross the lipid bilayer of the
cell. This type of receptor becomes activated
upon ligand binding. After a hormone binds to the
corresponding receptor, the newly formed receptor-ligand
complex translocates into the cell nucleus, where it binds to
many hormone response elements (HREs) in
the promoter region of the target genes in the DNA.
This enzyme, 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type
II (Protein:HSD11B2), catalyzes the deactivation of
glucocorticoids to 11-dehydro metabolites.
72. Adverse drug reactions
glucocorticoid-induced adrenocortical insufficiency,
glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis, and generalized protein
depletion
Although side effects and toxicities vary with the drug and,
sometimes, with the patient, facial mooning, flushing,
sweating, acne, thinning of the scalp hair, abdominal
distention, and weight gain are observed with most
glucocorticoids.
Protein depletion (with osteoporosis and spontaneous
fractures), myopathy (with weakness of muscles of the thighs,
pelvis, and lower back), and aseptic necrosis of the hip and
humerus are other side effects.
These drugs can cause psychological disturbances,
headache, vertigo, and peptic ulcer, and they can suppress
growth in children.
73. SEX STEROIDS
The sex steroids are comprised of three classes:
estrogens, progestins, and androgens
The principal class of the male sex steroid hormone is the androgens
The two principal classes of female sex steroid hormones are estrogens
and progestins
74. ANDROGENS ’ physiological
effects
Androgens are needed for the development of secondary sex
characteristics. The male voice deepens because of thickening of the
laryngeal mucosa and lengthening of the vocal cords.
In both men and women, they play a role first in stimulating the
growth of hair on the face, arms, legs, and pubic areas and later in
the recession of the male hairline.
The fructose content of human semen and both the size and the
secretory capacity of the sebaceous glands also depend on the levels
of testosterone.
75. The actions of androgen in the reproductive tissues, including
prostate, seminal vesicle, testis, and accessory structures, are
known as the androgenic effects,
Nitrogen-retaining effects of androgen in muscle and bone are
known as the anabolic effects.
76.
77.
78. SAR of Androgens
Oxygen functional groups normally occurring at positions 3 and 17
of the steroid ring system are not essential for androgenic activity.
Generally, ring expansion or ring contraction significantly reduces
or destroys the androgenic and anabolic activities.
Introduction of a 3-ketone function or a 3a-OH group enhances
androgenic activity.
A hydroxyl group in the 17a-position of androstane contributes no
androgenic or anabolic activity.
The 17b-oxygen atom is important for attachment to the receptor
site, while 17a-alkyl groups are important for preventing metabolic
changes at this position.
79. SAR of Androgens
Such 17a-substituents render the compounds orally active.
Increasing the length of the alkyl side chain at the 17a-position,
however, resulted in decreased activity, and the incorporation of
other substituents, such as the 17a-ethynyl group, produced
compounds with useful progestational activity (progestins), such as
ethisterone.
Attaching an isoxazole ring to ethisterone produced danazol
(Danatrol, Danocrine), which exhibited potent antigonadotropic
properties, weak androgen and anabolic properties, and no estrogen
or progestin activity
80. SAR of Androgens
Several modifications of 17a-methyltestosterone lead to potent,
orally active anabolic agents. Two hydroxylated analogs include
oxymesterone (Fig. 40.9) and oxymetholone These drugs have at
least three times the anabolic and half the androgenic activity of
testosterone
Halogen substitution produces compounds with decreased activity
except when inserted into positions 4 or 9 (e.g., fluoxymesterone).
Replacement of a carbon atom in position 2 by oxygen has produced
the only clinically successful heterocyclic steroid (oxandrolone)
among a number of azasteroids and oxasteroids. Some of the 2-
oxasteroids are potent anabolic agents.
81. SAR of Androgens
Introduction of a sp2 hybridized carbon atom into the A ring
(methenolone, testolactone renders the ring more planar, and in turn,
this may be responsible for greater anabolic activity.
The 19-norsteroids (nandrolone) are of interest, because these agents
seem to produce a more favorable ratio of anabolic to androgenic
activity..
82. ESTROGENS’ physiological
effects
One of the principal actions of the estrogens is to promote the
development of female secondary sex characteristics.
These feminizing attributes include hair growth, skin softening,
breast growth, and accumulation of fat in the thighs, hips, and
buttocks.
Estrogen also stimulates the growth and development of the female
reproductive tract, including the uterine oviduct, cervix, and vagina.
Estrogens play a significant role in breast tissue as well.
Considerable research has focused on understanding breast cancer
and the factors that influence its growth. Estrogens serve as “fuel”
for hormone-dependent mammary carcinoma and cause proliferation
of breast cells.
83. ESTROGENS’ physiological
effects
They also stimulate gene expression and, therefore, the production
of several proteins, including intracellular proteins important for
breast cell function and growth, as well as proteins that infl uence
tumor growth and metastasis. Some of these intracellular proteins
include the enzymes needed for DNA synthesis, such as DNA
polymerase, thymidine kinase, thymidylate synthetase, and
dihydrofolate reductase
84. PROGESTINS ’ physiological
effects
The primary physiologic site of action of progesterone is the uterus.
It acts on both the endometrium (inner mucous lining) and the
myometrium (muscle mass) of the uterus.
The effect of progesterone on the endometrium, already primed by
estrogens, is to induce the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle.
During this phase, the endometrial glands grow and secrete large
amounts of carbohydrates that can be used by the fertilized ovum as
an energy source.
The primary function of progesterone with respect to the
myometrium is to stop spontaneous rhythmic contractions of the
uterus.
Progesterone often is referred to as the “hormone of pregnancy.”
For the fi rst trimester, the corpus luteum serves as the primary
source of progesterone, at which point the developing placenta takes
over as the major source of progesterone and estrogen.
85. PROGESTINS ’ physiological
effects
The high level of progesterone that is produced during pregnancy
sends a signal to the hypothalamus via the negative feedback system
to prevent release of the FSH and LH necessary for the development
of new ova. In general, the nonreproductive effects of progesterone
are fairly insignifi cant.
Ovarian biosynthesis and secretion of progesterone is controlled by
the release of LH from the anterior pituitary during ovulation. The
LH induces progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum during
the second half of the menstrual cycle.
If conception does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, and
progesterone production decreases. As progesterone levels drop,
endometrial sloughing occurs—otherwise known as menstruation.
86.
87.
88. SAR of PROGESTINS
Progestin activity is restricted to those molecules with a steroid
nucleus.
The synthetic progestins generally can be divided into two steroidal
classes: the androstanes (including the 19-norandrostanes), and the
pregnanes (including the 19-norpregnanes) .
In the androstane series, a 17α substituent, such as ethynyl, methyl,
ethyl, and variations of these, provides oral bioavailability.
Ethisterone (17β-hydroxy-17α-ethynyl progesterone) the fi rst
androstane found to be effective, has only about one-third the
activity of progesterone when delivered subcutaneously, but is 15-
fold more active than progesterone when administered orally.
89. SAR of PROGESTINS
Closely related to testosterone, this progestin has significant
androgenic activity.
Removal of the CH3 group at position 19 leads to norethindrone
(norethisterone; 19-norandrostane) which has 5- to 10-fold more
progestin activity.
The activity of norethindrone is increased further by the addition of
a chlorine substituent at position 21 (blocks metabolic
hydroxylation) or by the addition of a methyl group at carbon 18
(norgestrel) .
Ethynodiol diacetate, another 19-norandrostane, is an extremely
potent oral progestin.It is more active when administered orally than
parenterally and, when combined with an estrogen, is effective as an
OC.
Further unsaturation of the B or C ring of androstane derivatives
usually enhances progestin activity.
90. SAR of PROGESTINS
Introduction of a halogen or methyl substituent in the 6α or 7α
positions generally increases hormonal activity.
Acetylation of the 17β-OH of norethindrone increases the duration
of action of the drug.
Removal of the 3-keto function of norethindrone allows retention of
potent progestin activity without androgenic effects.
Activity of the pregnanes and 19-norpregnanes is enhanced by
unsaturation at C6 and C7 and by substitution of a methyl group or a
halogen at C6. This activity