The document presents an overview of different approaches to defining cross-cultural management performance, including the cultural adaptation approach, skills and processes approach, and outcomes approach. It discusses limitations of focusing solely on adaptation or skills/attributes. The author proposes a holistic definition that incorporates successful cultural adaptation, cross-cultural social engagement skills, leadership of cross-cultural teams, resolution of cultural dilemmas, and achievement of outcomes like cultural synergy, productive diversity and intercultural effectiveness. The definition aims to encompass the individual, group and organizational levels involved in effective cross-cultural management performance.
What IS Cross Cultural Leadership? And How Does it Benefit the Workplace?NMC Strategic Manager
Part 1 of our mini series on Cross Cultural Communication introduces what it is and the benefits to organizations of all types and sizes for leading a diverse workforce.
Multinational companies demand multicultural teams, leaders have to manage different teams in different places, with different culture. Cultural differences could be a trap.
Cross Cultural Management Focus on Thailand july 2013Peter Cauwelier
A presentation I shared at the workshop on cross cultural management organized by Dataconsult end July in Bangkok. Focus on how Thailand compares with other countries on the Hofstede dimensions.
Cultural consequences of IHRM on company’s values, behavior, institutions, or...Masum Hussain
The objective of the study is to investigate and analyze the influence of culture on human resource management practices. The research is expected to answer the importance question: Are HRM practices influenced by national culture or not? It is generally accepted that the practices of management is considered to be universal until Hofstede (1980:42) published the seminal work: Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Value in 1980. Hofstede’s work is the most popular in cross culture management studies so that his framework in national culture will be used in this research. Structural equation model (SEM) with Two Step Model Building Approach is used to test structural theory. It is used to test the hypotheses model statistically to determine the extent to which the proposed model is consistent with the sample data. SEM incorporates both confirmatory factor analysis and multiple regressions to estimate a series of interdependent relationship simultaneously. The results of descriptive analysis indicate that the national culture dimensions tend high for collectivism, power distance, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance, quite different from Hofstede (1980) findings that Indonesia has high collectivism, high power distance, and moderate in masculinity and low in uncertainty avoidance. While in Second Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis, collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance are confirmed as a dimension of national culture but masculinity are not.
In structural testing, it indicates that two hypotheses i.e. the influence of national culture on career development and compensation are supported but the influence of national culture on staffing and participative management are not supported. Organizational culture also shows influence on staffing and participative management. One of human resource management practices i.e. career development influence on organizational performance but others such as staffing, participative management, and compensation does not. This study shows that national culture and organizational culture influence on some of human resource management practices. Therefore, this research supports the divergence theory that human resource management practices are culture-bound.
A Study of Cultural Dimensions in The Business OrganizationsSourav Dhar
The purpose of thesis was to investigate how Hofstede's (2013) five cultural dimensions: individualism Vs Collectivism, Masculinity Vs Feminism, Long term orientation Vs short term Orientation, uncertainty avoidance and power distance appear in west bengal Organization.
Cross cultural management involves managing work teams in ways that considers the differences in cultures, practices and preferences of consumers in a global or international business context. Many businesses have to learn to modify or adapt their approaches in order to compete on a level in fields no longer bound by physical geography with online interactions more common in business and other situations.
What IS Cross Cultural Leadership? And How Does it Benefit the Workplace?NMC Strategic Manager
Part 1 of our mini series on Cross Cultural Communication introduces what it is and the benefits to organizations of all types and sizes for leading a diverse workforce.
Multinational companies demand multicultural teams, leaders have to manage different teams in different places, with different culture. Cultural differences could be a trap.
Cross Cultural Management Focus on Thailand july 2013Peter Cauwelier
A presentation I shared at the workshop on cross cultural management organized by Dataconsult end July in Bangkok. Focus on how Thailand compares with other countries on the Hofstede dimensions.
Cultural consequences of IHRM on company’s values, behavior, institutions, or...Masum Hussain
The objective of the study is to investigate and analyze the influence of culture on human resource management practices. The research is expected to answer the importance question: Are HRM practices influenced by national culture or not? It is generally accepted that the practices of management is considered to be universal until Hofstede (1980:42) published the seminal work: Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Value in 1980. Hofstede’s work is the most popular in cross culture management studies so that his framework in national culture will be used in this research. Structural equation model (SEM) with Two Step Model Building Approach is used to test structural theory. It is used to test the hypotheses model statistically to determine the extent to which the proposed model is consistent with the sample data. SEM incorporates both confirmatory factor analysis and multiple regressions to estimate a series of interdependent relationship simultaneously. The results of descriptive analysis indicate that the national culture dimensions tend high for collectivism, power distance, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance, quite different from Hofstede (1980) findings that Indonesia has high collectivism, high power distance, and moderate in masculinity and low in uncertainty avoidance. While in Second Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis, collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance are confirmed as a dimension of national culture but masculinity are not.
In structural testing, it indicates that two hypotheses i.e. the influence of national culture on career development and compensation are supported but the influence of national culture on staffing and participative management are not supported. Organizational culture also shows influence on staffing and participative management. One of human resource management practices i.e. career development influence on organizational performance but others such as staffing, participative management, and compensation does not. This study shows that national culture and organizational culture influence on some of human resource management practices. Therefore, this research supports the divergence theory that human resource management practices are culture-bound.
A Study of Cultural Dimensions in The Business OrganizationsSourav Dhar
The purpose of thesis was to investigate how Hofstede's (2013) five cultural dimensions: individualism Vs Collectivism, Masculinity Vs Feminism, Long term orientation Vs short term Orientation, uncertainty avoidance and power distance appear in west bengal Organization.
Cross cultural management involves managing work teams in ways that considers the differences in cultures, practices and preferences of consumers in a global or international business context. Many businesses have to learn to modify or adapt their approaches in order to compete on a level in fields no longer bound by physical geography with online interactions more common in business and other situations.
# 1: Outside-in vs. Inside-out.
# 2: Trying things out vs. Planning.
# 3: Creative thinking vs. Analytical thinking.
# 4: Creativity vs. Efficiency.
# 5: Continuous change vs. Revolutionary change.
# 6: Collaboration vs. Competition.
# 7: Inclusive / involving vs. Exclusive / isolating.
# 8: Company perspective vs. Business unit perspective.
# 9: Self management vs. Hierarchical management.
# 10: Shape markets vs. Adapt to markets.
# 11: Long term focus vs. Short term focus.
# 12: Globalization vs. Localization.
This presentation is submitted by Mandira Adhiakri and Sailendra Adhikari as assignment in ACE institutement of Management during pair work of Performance Management. (HR Specialization)
Alliance Best Practice Research into Cultural Factors in Strategic Alliance R...Mike Nevin
This research presentation was produced from 93 separate alliance manager inputs from organisations such as: PPD, Quintiles, Cognizant, Covance, ICON, and RPS.
The research shows a very high correlation between Cultural Success Factors in alliances and overall success.
Eighth International Conference on Knowledge, Culture and .docxgidmanmary
Eighth International Conference
on Knowledge, Culture and
Change in Organizations
5-8 August 2008
Cambridge University ◦ UK
Knowledge,
Culture, Service,
and “The Next”
An excursion forward into
neo-organizational
structure
J. Louis Spencer, Ph.D.
The Case for
Neo-Organizational
Structures—
a review of present realities
and literature
Eighth International Conference on Knowledge, Culture and Change in Organizations
5-8 August 2008 ◦ Cambridge University ◦ UK
1. The industrial age is giving
way to the knowledge era
The era of knowledge-production and knowledge management is
emerging with unparalleled significance in organizations. Facilitating
learning, creative, and adaptive capacity becomes a central leader task
that reflects the “dynamic relationship between the bureaucratic,
administrative functions of the organization and the emergent, informal
dynamics of complex adaptive systems (CAS).”
(Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007, p. 298)
Eighth International Conference on Knowledge, Culture and Change in Organizations
5-8 August 2008 ◦ Cambridge University ◦ UK
2. Traditional hierarchical
models do not express all
there is to structure
A more effective use of understanding hierarchy is to view it as
supporting organizational members instead of merely commanding
them. Instead of reflecting the hierarchical needs of the leader to
maintain power and control, long-term viability of organizations is
related to a collectively led dynamic system “where bottom-up
structuration emerges.” (Osborn & Hunt, 2007, p. 319)
Eighth International Conference on Knowledge, Culture and Change in Organizations
5-8 August 2008 ◦ Cambridge University ◦ UK
3. Globally diverse
organizations and cultures
require a global mindset in
organizational structures
Antecedents of cultural diversity are a significant consideration when
talking about global leadership and change (Hofstede, 2001; House et al, 2004).
Leaders with a global mindset will develop forward-thinking organizational
structures reflective of the ability “to influence individuals, groups,
organizations, and systems that are unlike the leader’s.”
(Javidan, 2007, 2008)
Eighth International Conference on Knowledge, Culture and Change in Organizations
5-8 August 2008 ◦ Cambridge University ◦ UK
4. Complex adaptive
processes are emergent and
interactive
Organizational processes involve complex adaptive relational responses that
can be depicted as interactions between interdependent people.
(Stacey et al, 2000, Stacey, 2001, 2003)
Leadership in organizations considers valuable the “complex adaptive
process that emerges in the interactive ‘spaces between’ people and
ideas.” (Lichtenstein et al, 2006, p. 2)
Eighth International Conference on Knowledge, Culture and Change in Organizations
5-8 August 2008 ◦ Cambridge University ◦ UK
5. Flatter, more team-based
structures are becoming
normative
Flatter, m ...
Slides presented at Open Education 2016. The Open Research Agenda is an international consultation exercise on research priorities in open education which combines online surveys and focus group interactions. This presentation summarises thematic analysis of the data set and indicates future directions for research in the field of open education.
Slides presented at Open Education 2016. The Open Research Agenda is an international consultation exercise on research priorities in open education which combines online surveys and focus group interactions. This presentation summarises thematic analysis of the data set and indicates future directions for research in the field of open education.
Situational learning as a source of competitive advantageStephenRobertBibby
Situational Learning as a process that may help explain continuous competitive advantage of regions and organisations over time with policy implications - research project
Growing a Peer Review Culture among Graduate Students (WCCE 2009)Vinícius M. Kern
Preprint @ http://tinyurl.com/bsp7bg, World Conference on Computers in Education
Abstract: Usual processes for pursuing education excellence in a graduate program are candidate selection, coursework, research, and thesis defense. In this paper, we present a complementary approach: the growing of a peer review culture among graduate students. We instruct first-year masters’ and doctoral students on principles for preparing a thesis proposal. Students present their proposals in collective discussion sessions with feedback from professors. The students then submit their proposals through a web interface and are instructed on the role they will play next – of anonymous referees of their peers’ proposals. The referee reports and general statistics are made available to all participating students and advisors. Updated proposals are submitted to an annual workshop open to all participating students and advisors. About 60 students take part in this annual series of seminars with peer review and workshop, generating 60 theses proposals and about 180 referee reports, 3 for each proposal. Students and their advisors receive detailed feedback on individual participation as author and referee. The main strength of the experience is the opportunity to assimilate the techniques of objective criticism and to reflect about the quality of own and others’ work. The paper also outlines research and development issues related to our effort to enhance the peer review culture among graduate students.
Taking evidence-based professional learning conversations online: Implicatio...mddhani
Presented in one of the parallel sessions during the 15th International Conference on Education 2010 at Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Presenter/courtesy of Michael Moroney, Lecturer, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Presented in one of the parallel sessions during the 15th International Conference on Education 2010 at Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Presenter/courtesy of Michael Moroney, Lecturer, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Innovative Curriculum Materials And Approaches For Teaching Multicultural GroupsPeter Woods
Presents an intervention to improve intercultural interactions in case discussion based tutorials in a first year undergraduate management class at Griffith University.
Presentation to the Australian Business Deans Council Teaching and Learning Network, Brisbane, January 2013
A Confucian Approach to Self-Regulation in Management EthicsPeter Woods
Peter Woods, Griffith Business School
David Lamond, Faculty of Business & Law, Victoria University
Presentation to the Griffith Asia Institute, April 22, 2010
Embedding a Mentoring Program Within A University Business CoursePeter Woods
In this paper, we examine the benefits and challenges of embedding a cross-cultural student mentoring program within a business course structure. In all, 136 students undertaking a second-year business training and development course mentored 161 student mentees from a university pathway program or from a first year business course. Mentors paired up with mentees from a different cultural background to their own, and then met at least three times as part of their course requirements. Feedback from both mentors and mentees regarding the program was largely positive, and a measure of success was that 45% of both mentors and mentees wished to continue the relationship with mentoring partners after the completion of mentoring requirements. Mentors and mentors were highly positive about the value of mentoring, for mentees particularly in regard to increasing information about the university and for mentors the value of the mentoring relationship. The challenges of embedding the mentoring program in a business course included the short duration of the mentoring and the lack of commitment from some volunteer mentees. We conclude with recommendations for further research to explore the efficacy of conscripted mentors compared with volunteer mentors.
Sustaining And Developing The Cross-Cultural Management Effectiveness Of Aust...Peter Woods
Research to identify effective development practices for developing cross-cultural management effectiveness in Australian and Singaporean expatriate managers
1. A Holistic Definition of Cross-
Cultural Management
Performance
Dr. Peter Woods, Griffith Business School
9th IFSAM World Congress 2008, Shanghai
2. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 2
Co-Authors
• Prof. Michelle C. Barker
• Department of Management, Griffith University,
Brisbane, Australia
Email: m.barker@griffith.edu.au
• Dr. Ashlea Troth
• Department of Management, Griffith University, Brisbane,
Australia
Email: a.troth@griffith.edu.au
3. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 3
Outline
• Cross-cultural management performance
• The adaptation approach
• The skills and processes approach
• Cross-cultural management and groups
• Outcomes of cross-cultural management (organisational)
• Proposed holistic definition of cross-cultural management
4. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 4
Cross-Cultural Management
Performance Perspective
• Managerial performance is defined as “the cumulative
stakeholder perceptions of attainment level on specific
behaviours and actions that capture the full spectrum of job
activities” (Fraser, 2001, p.3).
• This definition reflects the reality of managers having to deal
with a variety of stakeholders successfully, in order to
achieve company objectives incorporating a broad and long-
term perspective.
5. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 5
Cultural Adaptation Approach
• The social and psychological adjustment of individuals or cultural
groups to the new cultural environment in which they now reside
(Adelman, 1988).
• Six-factor definition encompassing acceptance of the foreign
culture, knowledge of the country and culture, lifestyle adjustment,
interaction with local people, intercultural communication, feelings
of well-being (and positive self-concept) and job performance
(Tucker, Bonial, & Lahti, 2004).
• The extent to which individuals are psychologically comfortable
living outside their home country (Black et al., 1991).
7. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 7
Problems with the Adaptation Approach
• Adaptation and adjustment are used interchangeably in the
expatriate literature
• Adaptation, however, is conceptually different as it implies a
mutual process of change between host and expatriate (Mio,
Trimble, Arrendondo, Cheatham, & Sue, 1999).
• In expatriate research, successful adaptation has usually been
measured by the feelings of the expatriate (Black, 1988)
revealing the ‘one-sided’ cultural adaptation approach
predominant in expatriate research (Bonache, Brewster, &
Suutari, 2001).
• The adaptation approach focuses on the individual outcomes
of cross-cultural management, rather than group and
organisational outcomes.
8. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 8
Criticisms of the Adaptation Approach
• Co-cultural theory (Orbe & Spellers, 2005) - argues that
good communication enables under-represented groups to
define and present their own perspectives when they
perceive cultural differences as salient during any interaction.
• This theory recognises the power structure that limits
effective cultural feedback to the manager in the supervisor-
subordinate relationship.
• An effective cross-cultural manager, therefore, is actively
encouraging the incorporation of alternative cultural ‘voices’
rather than focussing on trying to adapt
9. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 9
Criticisms of the Adaptation Approach
• Post-colonial approach (Bhabha, 1994) assumes that power is
exercised in a hegemonic and dominant way, so that even the
identity of the cultural other is defined and fixated by the
dominant group.
• In applying this to critique the adaptation approach, the
interpretations by the home country culture of the host country
through pre-departure cross-cultural training or through the
influence of the expatriate community in the host country can
further reinforce the coloniser’s presentation of the host
culture.
• The effective cross-cultural manager, therefore, can utlilise an
open-minded and active learning approach to engage with the
other culture/s.
10. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 10
Unique Attributes Approach
• MBI Model – Map, Bridge, Integrate (Lane,
Distefano and Maznevski, 2000)
• Global Competencies framework derived by the
International Organisations Network (ION), a
multinational network of scholars and
professionals (Lane, Mazneveski, Mendenhall, &
McNett, 2004)
• Personal skills, attributes and attitudes
11. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 11
MBI Model
From Lane, Distefano and Maznevski (2000), p.55
MAP
Understand
the
differences
- Cultural
Orientations
Framework
BRIDGE
Communicate
across the
differences
- Prepare
- Decenter
- Recenter
INTEGRATE
Manage the
differences
- Build
participation
- Resolve
conflicts
- Build on
ideas
Value and
utilise the
differences to
achieve high
performance
12. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 12
Global Competencies (Bird & Osland, 2004)
Make ethical
decisions
Span
boundaries
Build
community
through change
Mindful
communication
Creating and
building trust
Interpersonal skills
Attitudes and orientations
Global Mindset
Cognitive complexity Cosmopolitanism
Integrity Humility Inquisitiveness Hardiness
Threshold traits
System
skills
Foundation Global knowledge
Level 1:
Traits
Level 2:
Attitudes and
orientations
Level 3:
Interpersonal
skills
Level 4: Systems skills
13. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 13
Cross-Cultural Interpersonal Skills
(Sue & Sue, 1990)
They identified five key skills in helping
across cultures:
• articulating the problem
• mutual goal formation
• diminishing defensiveness
• recognising resistance
• developing recovery skills
Rarely considered in considerations of cross-
cultural management performance
14. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 14
Problems with Current Skills Frameworks
• ION framework does not incorporate culturally synergistic
outcomes of cross-cultural management
• ION framework focuses more on the traits, attitudes and
skills of cross-cultural management, whereas the MBI model
focuses on the processes of cross-cultural management.
• Both areas are relevant to cross-cultural management
performance, and so an integration of these concepts is
relevant to the definition of cross-cultural management
performance.
15. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 15
Problems with Current Skills Frameworks
• ION framework focuses on the performance of the manager,
• The MBI model focuses on the processes of cross-cultural
management.
• A clearer definition of cross-cultural management
performance, would specifically incorporate the three
outcome areas of individual, group, and organisational,
rather than current definitions that focus more on the actions
of the manager.
• Empirical research has not established the validity of the ION
framework and the MBI model in assessing or measuring
cross-cultural management.
17. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 17
Cross-Cultural Management and
Groups/ Teams
• Particularly relevant to collectivist cultures where
effective management of teams is a particularly
important aspect of management
• Three major theories of cross-cultural
management team processes - Adler (2002),
Schneider & Barsoux (2003), Earley & Gibson
(2002)
18. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 18
Cross-Cultural Management Team
Processes (Adler, 2002)
1. Describe the situation
2. Determine underlying cultural assumptions
3. Assess cultural overlaps
4. Create culturally synergistic alternatives
5. Select an alternative
6. Implement the culturally synergistic solution.
19. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 19
Cross-Cultural Management Team
Processes (Schneider & Barsoux, 2003)
1. Creating a sense of purpose (task)
2. Structuring the task (task)
3. Assigning roles and responsibilities (task)
4. Reaching decisions (task)
5. Team building (process)
6. Choosing how to communicate (process)
7. Eliciting participation (process)
8. Resolving conflict (process)
9. Evaluation performance (process)
20. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 20
Cross-Cultural Management Team
Processes (Earley & Gibson, 2002)
1. Role taking, status/ hierarchy and identity
formation
2. Rituals/ habit formation and structuration
3. Enactment of social contracts and the
development of a shared history
21. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 21
Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes
- Cultural Synergy
• From the Greek word meaning 'working together‘
• Co-operative or combined action where the objective is to
increase effectiveness (Harris & Moran, 2000)
• The co-operative and combined action from two or more
relevant cultural sources, which produces mutually acceptable
and beneficial results for participants.
22. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 22
Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes
- Dilemma Reconciliation
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 2002)
• Reduced trans-cultural competence to one skill: the ability to
reconcile value dilemmas.
• Based on the results of surveys of 3000 leaders and
managers worldwide, and case studies of 21 international
managers
• The skill includes the ability to recognise and respect cultural
differences, and to reconcile differences in order to produce
synergies that meet stakeholder objectives.
23. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 23
Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes
- Productive Diversity (Cope and Kalantzis 1997)
• A company-wide approach to cross-cultural management that
includes the concept of managers achieving culturally
synergistic solutions.
• Defined as a ‘system of production that uses diversity as a
resource’ (p.289).
• Productive diversity includes creating organisational cohesion
through managing diversity and negotiating differences to find
common ground or create new ground (p.289).
• Introduces the idea of organisational outcomes as part of
effective cross-cultural management
24. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 24
CCM Definition
• ‘the achievement of productive diversity,
intercultural effectiveness and cultural synergy in
the performance of management across cultures,
through processes including successful cultural
adaptation and cross-cultural social engagement,
and skills including the leadership of cross-cultural
teams and the resolution of culturally related value
dilemmas’
25. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 25
Summary
• The different definitions/ models of CCM lead to
different expectations of the outcomes of CCM
• The outcomes and processes of CCM occur at an
organisational, group and interpersonal level
• Cross-cultural management is a complex process
that involves aspects of skills, personality and
attitudes
26. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 26
References
Adelman, M. B. (1988). "Cross-Cultural Adjustment: A Theoretical Perspective of Social Support." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 12: 183-
204.
Adler, N. (2002). International Dimensions of Organizational Behaviour 4th Edition. Cincinnati, South-Western.
Bennett, M. J. (2005). Intercultural Communication: A Current Perspective. Understanding and Managing Diversity: Readings, Cases and Exercises. C.
P. Harvey and M. J. Allard. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson: 52-80.
Bird, A. and J. S. Osland (2004). Global Competencies: An Introduction. The Blackwell Handbook of Global Management: A Guide to Managing
Complexity. H. W. Lane, M. L. Mazneveski, M. E. Mendenhall and J. McNett. Malden, MA, Blackwell: 57-80.
Black, J. S. and M. E. Mendenhall (1991). "The U-Curve Adjustment Hypothesis Revisted: A Review and Theoretical Framework." Journal of
International Business Studies 22(2): 225-247.
Cope, B. and M. Kalantzis (1997). Productive Diversity : A New Australian Model for Work and Management. Sydney, Pluto Press.
Earley, P. C. (2002). A Theory of Cultural Intelligence in Organisations. Research in Organizational Behavior. B. M. Staw and R. Kramer. Greenwich,
CT, JAI Press. 24: 271-299.
Earley, P. C. and C. B. Gibson (2002). Multinational Work Teams: A New Perspective. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
27. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 27
References
Harris, P. R. and R. T. Moran (2000). Managing Cultural Differences: Leadership Strategies for a New World of Business.
Houston, Gulf Publishing.
Lane, H. W., J. J. DiStefano, et al. (2000). International Management Behaviour 4th Ed. Oxford, Blackwell.
Schneider, S. C. and J. L. Barsoux (2003). Managing Across Cultures. Harlow, Prentice Hall.
Sue, D. W. and D. Sue (1990). Counseling the Culturally Different: Theory and Practice 2nd Edition. New York, Wiley.
Trompenaars, F. and C. Hampden-Turner (2002). 21 Leaders for the 21st Century. New York, McGraw Hill.
Tucker, M. F., R. Bonial, et al. (2004). "The Definition, Measurement and Prediction of Intercultural Adjustment and Job
Performance
Amongst Corporate Executives." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28: 221-251.
Van der Zee, K., Van Oudenhoven, J. (2001). "The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity of Self- and
Other Ratings of Multicultural Effectiveness." Journal of Research in Personality 35: 278-288.
van Oudenhoven, J., K. van der Zee, et al. (2001). "Successful Adaptation Strategies According to Expatriates." International
Journal of Intercultural Relations 25(5): 467-482.