Herbal Cultivation session 3

© Copyright PCNM 2011
Introduction to Plant Families cont.
• In this session we will continue to look at Plant Families
• Their botanical description
• Growing requirements
• Cultivation
• Interaction with other families.

Mallow or Malvaceae Family
• Mallows are a family of about 2,330 species in 204 genera.
Recentlly the Malvaceae was combined with the Tiliaceae,
Sterculiodaceae, and Bombacaceae. Most notable are the Hybiscus,
which have extremely showy flowers and a staminal column that is
unified (monodelphous andrecium).
• The edible ocra plant (Hibiscus esculaentus), and the popular cotton
plant (Gossypium sp.) are malvoid members of the family.
• Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) root and leaves are the most
commonly used medicinal plant in this family and grow well in damp,
saline places – see right.

Poppy or Papaveraceae Family
• In 40 genera, the poppy family has 770 species that are mostly
found in the northern hemisphere. The opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum) is the source of morphine and opium. The alkaloids are
extracted from the sap, which is drained by making slices along the
seed capsules.
• Characteristics: Poppies have sap that is coloured or milky. The
calyx has (usually) 2-3 lobes that fall off as the flower emerges. The
corolla is composed of 4-12 lobes of petals in 1 or 2 whorls. Fruits
are capsular and often dehiscing.
• Papaver are mostly weeds of cultivated ground, growing well in
hedges or bare, waste places.

Poppy or Papaveraceae Family
• Commonly used medicinal sps are Californian Poppy (Eschscholzia
californica) -below left and the poisonous Greater Celandine
(Chelidonium majus) – below right which has a UK maximum legal
dose of 48mls/week.

Fumitory or Fumariaceae Family
• Has been associated as a sub-family of the Papaveraceae Family in
the past.
• Mostly rather floppy, hairless plants with leaves pinnately divided
several times.
• Flowers characteristically tubular, two-lipped and spurred.
• Fumitories are usually annual weeds of arable fields and waste
places.

Fumitory or Fumariaceae Family
• Common Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis) – see below left and
Corydalis sps – see below right are the most widely known and used
medicinally.

Plantain or Plantaginaceae Family
• Plantaginaceae: (Plantago and Snapdragons)
• This family consists of 114 genera and 2,100 species. Just recently
the family has been completely reorganized (Judd et al). What was a
very small family (the Plantagos), has had most of the
Scrophulariaceae family added onto it. Thus, the family now is most
characteristic of the old Snapdragon family. The main typical old
Plantagos are Greater Plantain (Plantago major) -see right and
Ribwort (Plantago lanceolata) –see left .

Plantain or Plantaginaceae Family
• Characteristics: This family contains many diverse plants. The
leaves for instance, vary so greatly that they are of little help except
that they are usually simple and grow in a rosette on the ground.
• The flowers are almost always zygomorphic. The calyx and corolla
are both usually 4-5 lobed. The corolla is often 2-lipped. Some of the
petals also form a nectary spur or sack.
• There is usually a nectary disk at the base of the ovaries. One good
clue to tell this family from others is the fact that the ovules are very
numerous.
• See www.wildclassroom.com

Scrophulariaceae Sub-family
• One of the best known members of this sub-family is Digitalis
purpura, a deadly poison, however, used in folk medicine for
Cardiac insufficiency (alongside other herbs to curb its toxicity).
• Used by modern medicine as the drug digoxin.
• Often the first plant to recolonise after forest fires or clear cutting of
forests and associated in folkloric stories with the fairies!

Scrophulariaceae Sub-family
• Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) below right and Figwort (Scrophularia
nodosa) below left) and other important members of this family.
They attract different pollinators, bees and hoverflies for Mullein and
wasps for Figwort.
• They both self seed prolifically and pop up all over the garden.

Dock or Polygonaceae Family
• The Polygonaceae contains 750 species in 30 genera. It is a
common weedy plant, growing on waste land and grassland.
• Yellow or Curled Dock (Rumex crispus) and Sheep’s Sorrel (Rumex
acetosella) are the most commonly used medicinally.
• It’s cousin Broad leafed or Common Dock (Rumex obtusifolius) is an
excellent liquid feed for other plants. These ‘weeds’ are actually
important for bringing up minerals deep from within the soil to make
available for cultivated plants and can be controlled by cutting back.
Yellow Dock Common dock

Buttercup or Ranunculaceae Family
• This family has about 2,000 species in 50 genera. They are often
called the herbaceous counterpart to the Magnoliaceae because of
the relatively simple structure of their flowers.
• Like the magnolias, the buttercups represent a family of plants that
have relatively unspecialized or ‘primitive’ floral parts. However, it is
important to remember this is only because they have retained their
ancestral characteristics, not because evolution passed them up. In
fact, many of these species appear to have coevolved greatly with
pollinators (such as the Columbines). But, because all floral parts
attach independently these plants are considered simple.
• These plants have an affinity for water and grow extremely well in
moist, damp conditions – The Water-lilies are a sub-family
(Nymphaeaceae).

• CAREFUL: Many of the species in this family are considered
extremely toxic. The most poisonous plant in the world is a type of
monks hood (Aconitum napellus) from Nepal. Handling or smelling
this plant, particularly the root, can cause unwelcome symptoms.
Because of the toxic alkaloids found in many of the plants in this
family, it is best to avoid eating them unless you're with an expert.

• Characteristics: As T.J. Elpel (2004) once wrote, "the most
common pattern of the family is the apparent lack of pattern".
Flowers are regular, sometimes irregular. Often they are bisexual. A
reliable identifier is to look for multiple simple pistils.
• They are often in rosette formation eg Pilewort or Lesser Celandine
(Ranunculus ficaria) see below left and the petals are in 5’s and
nectariferous near the base. Other important medicinal plants in this
family are: Pasque Flower (Anemone pulsatilla) see below middle
and Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) below left.

Buckthorn or Rhamnaceae Family
• This family contains about 900 species in 55 genera. They are
mostly trees or shrubs. There are very few plants in this family that
are used commercially. The best known is Rhamnus purshiana, the
bark of which gives us Cascara sagrada, a laxative used in detox.
• Characteristics: This family is very closely related to the
Celastraceae. They differ in having stamen that are opposite to the
petals. They have in common a 5-lobed calyx and a 5-clawed
corolla. The ovary is superior and contains a nectariferous disk,
that surrounds the superior ovary making it look inferior. This is a
prominent feature of the family. The gynecium has 1 pistil and 2,3
carpels.

Madder or Rubiaceae Family
• The Rubiaceae is variously called the coffee, madder or bedstraw
family.
• Members of the coffee family tend to be concentrated in warmer and
tropical climates around the world. Currently, about 611 genera and
more than 13,000 species are placed in Rubiaceae. This makes it
the fourth-largest family of flowering plants by number of species,
and fifth-largest by number of genera.
Coffee

Madder or Rubiaceae Family
• The group contains many commonly known plants, including the
economically important coffee (Coffea arabica), quinine (Cinchona
sps.) and Cat’s claw (Uncaria tormentosa), the medicinal
Ipecacuanha (Carapichea ipecacuanha), Partridgeberry (Mitchella
repens) see below right, Cleavers (Galium aparine) - see below left
and the horticulturally valuable dye, Madder (Rubia tinctorum)

Laurel or Lauraceae Family
• There are about 2000 species of laurels in 55 genera. They include
popular spices such as Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) and Cinnamon
(Cinnamomum burmannii). Like these two spices, many of the plants
in this family have aromatic leaves. Another laurel of economic value
is the Avocado (Pursea ameriana) which is grown in both California
and Florida and is an important food source of omega oils.
• Certain laurels, like the Camphor tree can also be quite invasive.
Eg.in Hawaii and in northern New South Wales, Australia. In
Australia, birds act as the vectors for the seeds and disperse this
plant all over the forest. Its particularly pronounced along fence-lines
where birds tend to defecate.

Laurel or Lauraceae Family
• Characteristics:
• Laurels are recognized by a close examination of the anthers. They
usually have 4 dehiscent anthers (meaning they split when mature).
At the bottom of the stamen is an enlarged glandular appendage.
Leaves are simple and alternate. The perianth is undifferentiated.
Tepals: 6 or 3+3. The flowers are usually small and greenish.

Citrus or Rutaceae Family
• The Rutaceae are herbs, shrubs, and trees with glandular punctate,
commonly strongly smelling herbage comprising about 150 genera
and 1,500 species that are further characterized by the common
occurrence of spines and winged petioles.
• The flowers are often sweet-scented, nearly always bisexual, and
are actinomorphic or sometimes zygomorphic.
• The calyx consists of 3-5 distinct or basally connate sepals and the
corolla consists of 3-5 distinct or sometimes connate petals or rarely
the petals are lacking.
• Generally, an intrastaminal nectary disk is situated between the
stamens and the ovary. The fruit is variable.
• The family grows in Mediterranean and tropical climates and are an
important source of essential oils (zest of rind, flowers and twigs) &
flavanoids.

Citrus or Rutaceae Family
• Lime (Citrus aurantium) , lemon (C. limon), sweet orange (Citrus
sinesis) grapefruit (C. paradisi), tangerine and mandarine (C.
reticulata) all yield stimulating, uplifting essential oils. Safe to use in
pregnancy but not neat directly on the skin when they can cause
irritation.
• Neroli is from the sweet orange blossom and Petitgrain essential oil
from the leaves and twigs of the sweet orange tree.

Valerian or Valerianaceae Family
• Relatively few family members but the family’s most well known
plant Valeriana officinalis is a key medicinal herb.
• Grows in woods, grassy places,
both damp (mainly) and dry.
• Lvs opposite, no stipules.
• Fls with five joined petals,
small and in clusters.

Honeysuckle or Caprifoliaceae Family
• A relatively small but important family comprising small trees and
shrubs and the woody, climber Honeysuckle (Lonicera
periclymenum) – see below.
• Found growing by waysides,
woods, hedges and waste
places.
• Lvs are opposite and
flowers with five joined petals.

Honeysuckle or Caprifoliaceae Family
• Elder (Sambucus nigra) –see below left - is found at thresholds of
habitats, especially wood edges and clearances and is one of the
first plants to re-colonise after deforestation.
• Guelder Rose or Crampbark (Viburnum opulus) – below right,
prefers slightly more damp woods or fen habitat.

The Willow & Poplar or Salicaceae Family
• This family consists of trees and shrubs: the Willows found beside
rivers or other wet places and on uplands and the Poplars – tall, fast
growing trees dominating Northern Temperate Landscapes.
• Common to both genera are the
catkins of unisexual flowers.
Each plant bearing either male or
female catkins. Individual flowers
have no perianth (sepals or petals);
in Willows, a small nectary
which is insect pollinated exists or
a cup shaped disc nectary in the
wind pollinated Poplars (Barker, 2001). White Willow (Salix alba)

Birch & Alder or Betulaceae Family
• This family includes the Hazels and Hornbeam with about 50 sps of
deciduous trees and shrubs, some growing farther north and higher
than any other tree.
• Birches are pioneers; they are among
the first to colonise bare land. They
seed profusely and take over
unpromising land by their rapid growth.
• Lvs are simple and alternate.
• The unisex flowers are born on catkins both
types on the same tree.
• The fruit develops wings to aid dispersal
• (Barker, 2001).
Silver Birch (Betula alba)

Myrtle or Myrtaceae Family
• This family is almost exclusively tropical and sub-tropical. (The only
sps cultivated in Europe since ancient times and is more native to
the Mediterranean being Myrtle (Myrtus communis) below left.
• It includes Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) below right and
Eucalyptus sps and the Melaleuca sps.

• Eucalyptus, native of Australia grows so well in the wet that it is
utilised in draining swamps and has been indirectly contributed to a
reduction of the plague of malaria in Southern Europe.
• The decongestant properties of the essential oil of Eucalyptus
globulus and radiata sps are widely used.

• The Melaleuca sps are well known as Australian natives providing
effective anti-infective essential oils.
• The anti-fungal Tea Tree (Ti-Tree) (Melaleuca alternifolia) -see
below left and Niaouli (Melaleuca viridiflora) below centre, are
common place with Cajuput (Melaleuca leucadendron /cajuputi) –
see below right, used in dental root canal work.

Crop Rotations
The following is from veg growing but also applies to Herbs
• One of the rules of good organic gardening is to rotate plant families
from one season to the next, so related crops are not planted in the
same spot more often than every three years.
• This is to help maintain the balance of nutrients, organic matter, and
microorganisms necessary for healthy soil. The latter is the one that
most benefits from crop rotations.
• E.g. potatoes. In the course of a season, the fungi that cause
scabby skin patches may proliferate, along with root-killing
verticillium fungi (which also damage tomatoes and eggplant) and
tiny nematodes that injure potatoes. If you plant potatoes again in
the same place, these pathogens will be ready and waiting to
sabotage the crop. Most pests and diseases can damage plants of
the same botanical family, but cannot hurt unrelated crops.

Crop Rotations
• Rotate Your Families: The Nine Main Groups
• Onion family: onions, garlic, leeks and shallots
• Carrot family: carrots, celery, parsley and parsnips
• Sunflower family: lettuce, sunflowers and a few other leafy greens
• Cabbage family: cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale and many
other leafy greens, as well as rutabagas and kohlrabi
• Spinach family: beets and chard
• Cucumber family: cucumbers, melons, squash and gourds
• Pea family: peas and beans
• Grass family: corn, wheat, oats and rye
• Tomato family: tomatoes, peppers, eggplant and potatoes

Crop Rotations
• Without rotations field trials in Connecticut and Europe indicate that
your potato production will quickly fall by 40 percent, mostly due to
disease. A seven-year study from Ontario found a similar reduction
in tomatoes. Cited in Coleman’s The New Organic Grower (1995).
• In a recent study from Cornell University, snap bean production
doubled when beans were planted after corn rather than after snap
beans. Cited in Rodale’s All New Encyclopaedia of Organic
Gardening (1997) Rodale Press Ltd.
• In addition to interrupting disease cycles, rotating crops prevents the
depletion of nutrients. E.g. tomatoes need plenty of calcium the
same way beans and beets crave manganese. Broad-leafed greens
suppress weeds, and the deep roots of sweet corn do a good job of
penetrating compacted subsoil. Nitrogen-fixing legumes stimulate
the growth of beneficial soil microorganisms.

Crop Rotations
• The eight-crop rotation plan developed by market gardener Eliot
Coleman incorporates decades of farm and garden research.
• In order, Coleman’s plants unfold like this:
• (1) tomatoes (2) peas (3) cabbage (4) sweet corn (5) potatoes (6)
squash (7) root crops (8) beans.
• If you grow only these eight crops in eight rows or beds, you now
have your rotation plan. Simply line up your crops in the right order,
and shift them one space over every year.

Crop Rotations
• Depending on how your land is laid out you may need a customized
plan that relocates the main plant families from one season to the
next as some families require more space than others.
• E.g. tomato-family (Solanaceae) crops (tomatoes, peppers,
potatoes) require more space; spinach, chard, or beets
(Polygonaceae) require less.
• Begin planning your rotations by making a list of your must-have
crops and how much space is required by each one. Then sort them
into the plant families.
• You may also wish to identify “crop sequences” that work well in
your garden within the same growing season. E.g. many gardeners
have garlic in the ground from autumn to midsummer, after which
the area can be planted with a second crop. E.g. beans in a warm
climate or lettuce in a cold climate.

Crop Rotations Practical
• You will need two sheets of paper, scissors, and a pen or pencil. On
one sheet, make a rough drawing of your garden, noting the sizes of
beds or rows. Write down and /or take photos of where various
crops grew last year.
• Cut another piece of paper into smaller pieces that fit the rows or
beds in your garden drawing, and copy the crops and the plant
family they belong to onto these “crop markers.”
• Move the labelled crop/plant family markers about on your garden
drawing. Your goal will be to have your plantings move in a logical
order and direction, whether it’s left to right, front to rear, circular or
whatever.

Checkpoint!

Summary
Today we have covered:
Advanced botanical classification
& Plant families and their place in
crop rotation.

Next Session
We will cover:
Cultivation &
Assessment of requirements for
the growing of various herbs

Preparation
Brief Notes
• Don’t forget to log on to the LMS and download and print off your
brief notes and handouts for the next session.

Herbal Cultivation session 3

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Herbal Cultivation session 3