Herbal Cultivation session 2

© Copyright PCNM 2011
Introduction to Plant Families
• In this session we will be looking at Plant Families
• Their botanical description
• Growing requirements
• Cultivation
• Interaction with other families.

Plant Families
• What's in a name? That which we call a rose
• By any other name would smell as sweet.
• From Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, 1600

Plant Families
• The Asteraceae (was Compositae) are the largest family of
flowering plants, many medicinal and are divided into different tribes
such as the Thistle tribe.
• Commonly known as the Daisy
or Sunflower family, their flowers
are tiny, closely packed into a tight,
compound head, surrounded by
sepal-like bracts.
Fitter and Blamey (1985)

Daisy or Asteraceae Family
• There are 3 main types of composite flower-heads:
• 1. Consisting of disc florets only (thistle-like)
• 2. Consisting of ray florets only (dandelion-like)
• 3. Consisting of both (daisy-like)
1.Milk Thistle (Silybum marianus) 2.Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) 3.Daisy (Bellis perennis)

Asteraceae family core structure
• Petals are joined in a tube and are of 2 kinds:
• Ray florets (tube ends in conspicuous flat flap) OR
• Disc florets (tube ends in 5 short teeth OR
• Flower heads contain both ray and
• disc florets

Asteraceae Family
• Family members are found growing in many different types of
habitat, eg.
• Hemp Agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum) grows in damp woods
and marshes.
• Golden Rod (Solidago virgaurea) grows in woods, scrub, heaths,
grassy and rocky places.
• Daisy (Bellis perennis) and Arnica (Arnica montana) grow in grassy
places on hills and mountains (and lawns for Daisies, of course!)
Hemp Agrimony
Golden Rod Arnica

Asteraceae Family
• Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) grows in waste places and roadsides.
• Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenim), Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare),
Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and
Dandelions (Taraxacum officinale) all frequent grassy, waste
ground. Marigold (Calendula officinalis) a common garden escapee.
• Thistles in bare, waste places and grassland as well as dry, stony
plaves places. Coltsfoot on right
Mugwort on left
Coltsfoot
Yarrow
Marigold
Feverfew

Asteraceae Family
• Beauty in mathematics: the Fibonacci sequence is seen
throughout the universe and none so obviously as the sunflower
head.
• The sequence in
which each no. is
created by the sum of
the 2 preceding it (eg.
1,2,3,5,8,13 etc).
• These no.’s occur
repeatedly in plants.
• The number of florets
on the daisy usually
number 34 or 55.

Mint or Lamiaceae Family
• The Lamiaceae contains approximately 3500 species in 180 genera
–all with medicinal properties.
• The first thing that comes to mind when this family is mentioned are
the culinary herbs. Oregano (Origanum vulgare), spearmint (Mentha
spicata), peppermint (Mentha piperita) basil (Ocimum basilicum) and
lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) are but a few of the many cooking
herbs this family contains.
• Previously known as the Labiaceae
family or Labiates due to the 2 lipped
structure of their flowers.
» Basil in pot

Mint Family
• Strong association with the number 4:
• 4 sided square stem
• 4 seeds in 4 lobed ovary
• Leaves are opposite in pairs (decussate)
alternating at right angles to the next.
• Flowers – upper lips arch up,
lower lips project out (as landing platform
for bees who are dusted with pollen).
• Fruits are small, dry nuts with seeds,
high in fat or oil content.

Mint Family
• Notable for the production of fiery, aromatic compounds
• ie Essential or Volatile Oils.
• The warmth of the E.O’s is associated with Mediterranean regions
where Labiates flourish and prefer light, sandy well drained soil with
the exception of the mints which appreciate rich feeding.
• They avoid moist, tropics and colder regions.
• An old saying is that mints “like their head in the sun and their roots
in the shade”.
• They can also propagate themselves
by runners and need contained.
This is a form of vegetative growth.
Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis)

Rose or Rosaceae Family
• With 3,000 species and 100 genera, there is a high degree of
variation among the constituents. In Rosa damascena essential oil
alone, there are 30,000 known constituents.
• The family contains the roses that we use for valentines and special
occasions. Other roses are the strawberries (Fragaria spp), and
raspberries (Rubus sp) both of which have many wild relatives of the
cultivated forms.
• Characteristics: This family is made up of several sub-families.
Most species have superior ovaries. There are typically 5 sepals, 5
petals and multiples of 5 stamen. There is a nectariferous glandular
disk that's usually present. Often present is an epicalyx (outer ring of
sepals below the true sepals) of 5 bracts.

Rose Family
• Growing habitats vary widely from wet meadows
eg Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) – see below left and woods
eg Wood Avens (Geum urbanum) – see below
to dry, grassy places on lime eg Agrimony
(Agrimonia eupatoria) see far right
and grassy places eg Lady’s Mantle
(Alchemilla vulgaris) -see right

Rose Family
• Roses can grow as shrubs with thin stems and thorns eg Wild Rose
(Rosa canina) and scrambling shrubs like Bramble/Blackberry
(Rubus fructicosa) to low growing perennials like the Potentilla sps.
All these plus Fragaria sps can produce vegetative growth as
runners.
• Also found as small trees growing in woods, scrub, especially in
neutral or more basic soils eg the shade tolerant Hawthorn
(Crataegus oxycanthoides) but Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) prefers
upland, rocky places, rarely on lime.
Wild Strawberry (left)
Hawthorn (right)

Carrot/Parsley or Apiaceae Family
• This is a family of about 2850 species in 275 genera. Many of the
plants in this family are found in northern temperate climates or at
higher elevations in tropical areas.
• They have commonly been used as food by local peoples. For
instance, parsley (Petroselinum crispus) and carrots (Daucus
carota) are all included in the family. The Dill (Anethum graveolens)
is used to flavor dill pickles, and coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is a
popular spice in China and India.
• However, it is important to differentiate
species in this family, because while
some may be edible, some are deadly
poisonous, like Poison Hemlock
(Conium maculatum) – see right.

Parsley Family
• Leaf shape of this family shows tremendous variety of form eg.
Wedge shaped, toothed, palmate lvs eg Sanicle (Sanicula
europaea).
• In grasslands or hedgerow ditches, leaves show double or triple
divisions eg Sweet Cicely (Myrrhis odorata). This division process
goes to extremes, producing incomparably airy forms eg Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare) leaves ‘evaporate’ into thin air.
• Aquatic (Gotu kola Hydrocotyl asiatica) and alpine sps; shade and
moisture loving woodland plants eg Pignut (Conopodium majus).
• Flowers are small, 5 petals, in umbels, in turn arranged in umbel
shapes (previous latin name of family was Umbellifererae). Thus,
the whole flower head looks like an upside down umbrella, whose
spokes are the stalks of the secondary umbels.

Parsley Family
• The upper and lower bracts at the base of the 1°and 2° umbels as
well as the flowers are important in identification.
• The seeds and leaves are the most common medicinal parts used
concentrating high levels of essential oils.
• Swollen fleshy roots have been cultivated as food stuffs.
Fennel Indian Pennywort

Pea or Fabaceae
• Behind the Orchids and Sunflowers, the legumes or bean family is
the third largest family. Now that several families have been
combined there are about 18,000 species in 630 genera.
• These plants often are associated with bacteria in nodes in their
roots. This allows them to fix nitrogen and thus they are planted in
soils that are low in nitrogen. Large mimosoid trees are seen
frequently planted in the tropics with food crops underneath (putting
nitrogen into the soil for the crops). Perennial plants in this family
are, such as red or white clover are often grown as green manures.
• Characteristics: Leaves are alternate, stipulate, and have a
pulvinus. The ovary is superior and the fruit is usually a legume.
Usually there are 10 stamen. Besides that there can be a lot of
variation between the subfamilies.

Pea Family
• Occur as small perennials like Red Clover (Trifolium pratens) see
below left or as shrubby bushes like Broom (Sarothamnus
scoparius) see below right.

Deadly Nightshade or Solanaceae
• You'd be wise to think twice before trying any plant from this family.
There is a reason they are called the deadly nightshades. This is the
family of Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna), Thorn-apple
(Datura stramonium) and Henbane (Hyocyamus niger), as well as
the common potato and tomato. There are 2,800 species in 85
genera.
• Characteristics: This plant is a dicot. Leaves are simple, alternate.
Flowers are usually 5 petalled and joined at the base. Stamens
alternate with the petals. Usually only one compound pistil.
Deadly Nightshade

Nettle or Urticaceae Family
• This family is fairly herbaceous and has 700 species in 45 genera.
This family is well known in northern climates because of its sharp
hollow hairs that contain toxins. An interesting note about this family
is that poisonous hairs are not found in all species. For example,
Hawaii, due to its isolation and lack of large herbivores, has several
species that have lost the stinging hairs. Mamaki (Pipturus albidus)
is one example.
• Characteristics: Urticacids are monoecious plants with unisexual
flowers. Usually there are 4 of both. The gynoecium is monocarpus,
with one pistil and one ovule and only one brush-like stigma. This is
an important differentiation from the Moraceae family.

Nettle Family
• Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) below left, is an important plant to
increase fertility of the soil and provide high nutrition and minerals as
liquid manures for heavy feeder plants and vegetables, such as
pumpkin and squashes.
• Aromatic plants produce higher quantities of essential oils when
grown alongside nettles and fruits like raspberries improve their
nutritional level when grown with nettles.
» Pellitory of the wall
» (Parietaria diffusa)

Verbena or Verbenaceae Family
• Short/medium perennials; stems square and stiff; Lvs pinnately
lobed, toothed, opposite. Fls lilac, more or less 2 lipped, petals 5-
lobed in long, slender, leafless spikes.
• Chasteberry (Vitex agnus castus) below left and Lemon verbena
(Lippia citriodora) need to grow in warm climates (or in glasshouses
in northern climates). Vervain (Verbena officinalis) below right is
more widely grown in northern climates.

Ginger or Zingiberaceae Family
• Gingers are made up of about 1000 species in 47 genera. They
have numerous members with aromatic oils that have made them
popular for perfumes and ornamentals. Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
below right and Ginger (Zingiber officinale) below left are of the most
important spices in the world, particularly from India and other areas
of south-east asia. In some tropical places, such as Hawaii,
ornamental gingers have escaped cultivation and are now a serious
invasive species in the wet tropical areas.

Ginger or Zingiberaceae Family
• Characteristics: Gingers can rarely be mistaken for anything else.
Most notable is the single functional stamen that it has running
through it [the pistil]. This odd arrangement is not present in any
other family. What look like petals are actually sterile stamen
(staminodes). Three of them are coalesced and two are distinct.
• Other descriptive characters are the alternate, disticous leaves with
lateral veins running pinnately up the stalk. The ovaries are inferior
and the pistil is tri-carpelated.
• They grow only in the tropics, warm climates or in glasshouses in
northern climes.
• The key spice in Indian Chai tea, Cardamon (Elettaria
cardamonum).

Violet or Violaceae Family
• This family has 800 species and 16 genera and is well known in the
world of ornamentals because of the Pansy or Heartsease (Viola
tricolor) – see left and the Violet (Viola spp) – see right. In late
summer, if conditions get bad, the violets can produce buds that
never open. This forces the stamen to be very close to the pistil.
Thus, the flowers can self -fertilise if it they have to.

Violet or Violaceae Family
• Characteristics: The Violaceae has flowers that are zygomorphic
and sometimes cleistogomous (remain closed). There are 5 distinct
sepals and 5 petals. There is often a spur on the lower most petal.
The stamens are coherent around the gynoecium and one of the
stamen usually goes into the spur for nectar. The ovary is superior.
• These low growing plants are found often found in shady woodland
areas and are flowering in late Spring.

Orchid or Orchidaceae
• The Orchidaceae family contains 800 to 1,000 genera and an
estimated 15,000 to 20,000 orchid species. Most orchids actually
grow as epiphytes on plants. The vast majority of orchids also have
only a few bee species that act as a pollinator. Because of this,
orchids are relatively rare on islands.
• Orchids are also quite important for horticulture and for the spice
trade. Many varieties and hybrids are bred for their beauty and
displayed in the home. One species, Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) is an
unusual orchid as it grows as a liana
(a long vine) up the sides of trees.
• Characteristics: Orchids have a
perianth of 6 tepals in 2 whorls of 3.
They usually only have 2 stamen
and a single pistil.

Lily or Liliaceae Family
• The Liliaceae contains 13 genera and about 400 herb species.
• Liliaceae used to be a large family. They included garlic, onions,
asparagus, amaryllis, and agaves. Today, the family is relatively
small as these groups have been placed in other families.
• Eg. The Alliums are often based in their own separate sub-family
due to its flower shape, however, other taxonomists place it in the
Daffodil or Amaryllidaceae family.
• Garlic (Allium sativa) is an example
Garlic

Lily or Liliaceae Family
• Characteristics: They are mostly perennial herbs that grow from
bulbs. Differentiated from other look-alike families in that they have
superior ovaries, and the seed coat is not black. In common with
others are the 6 Petaloid tepals in 2 whorls of 3. There are 6 stamen
and one pistil with 3 carpels.
• The Lily family along with the Grass family are the main
monocotyledon plants used medicinally.

Grass or Poaceae Family
• Used to be called the Graminae family.
• Grasses make up a huge group of plants with 500 genera and
10,000 species. They are also probably the most important plant
family for food value. Corn, wheat, rice, and barley are all grasses
that supply the majority of the world's food. Bamboo is also a grass
that is important in infrastructure in S.E. Asia.
• Characteristics: They have alternating leaves that sheath the stem,
but are overlapping (not connected). There are usually 3 but some
have 6 stamens and there is usually a single 2-carpellate pistil.
• Important medicinal plants in this family are Oats (Avena sativa),
particularly suited to a wet climate, Couchgrass (Agropyron repens)
and Cornsilk (Zea mays) all with high mucilagenous content.

Borage or Boraginaceae Family
• The Boraginaceae are made up of about 2000 species in around
100 genera. This family stems from the latin source "burra" meaning
rough hair or short wool. This is a very useful key in identifying
plants in the family, which usually have very stiff hairs on the stems
and leaves. These hairs are coarse because of the presence of
silicon dioxide and calcium carbonate.
• This family can be easily identified by the classic scorpioid shape of
its flowers which share the common colour of blue/purple/pink are
arranged in clusters.

Borage or Boraginaceae Family
• They provide very mineral rich plants and Comfrey (Symphytum
officinale) –see below right is commonly used as a high nitrogenous
liquid feed. Along with Borage (Borago officinalis) see below left,
they grow well in moist environments, by waysides and waste
places.
• They have an affinity with being highly nutritious medicines and are
trophorestoratives for different tissue types from nerves and bones
to the lungs.

Cabbage or Brassicaceae Family
• The cabbage or mustard family is made up of 3000 species in 350
genera. Maximum diversity for this species centers around the
Mediterranean and most species are found in the Northern
Hemisphere. Originally sps were found growing on the sea shore.
• In terms of cultivation, the main problem with this family is that they
can suffer from the fungal infection, Club root. To avoid this, strict
rotations must be adhered to with a gap of at least 3 yrs between
plantings. Keeping the soil well limed also helps.
• Another name for this family, which is also acceptable is Cruciferae.
Modern botanists have switched to Brassicaceae but since
Cruciferae was so widely published it is one of the few plant families
where both names can be used. Cruciferae refers to the cross-like
nature of the flowers, one of the easiest ways to identify this family.

• Members of the species Brassica oleracea have been selectively
bred for different traits resulting in the foods we know as broccoli,
kohlrabi, cabbage, kale, brussels sprouts, and cauliflower.
• Characteristics: The perianth consists of 4 sepals, 4 petals (often
clawed) and 6 stamen (4 long and 2 short). Leaves opposite,
sometimes in basal rosettes.
• Main medicinal plants of this family are Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella
bursa-pastoris) -below left and Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) –
below right.

Pepper or Piperaceae Family
• This family contains some of the most important spice plants in the
world. Of the 1,400 to 2,000 species in ten genera, the most
recognizable species is the plant we get Black pepper from (Piper
nigrum). Another well known species, particularly in the pacific is the
Kava plant (Piper mythisticum) – see below. Kava plants do not
produce fertile seeds, however, and are only spread by stem
cuttings. The kavalactones that come from the plant are muscle
relaxants and thus, the plant is considered a psychotropic plant.
• It grows in the tropics of Polynesia.

Pepper or Piperaceae Family
• Characteristics:
• Most plants in this family are easily identified by the presence of a
long rat-tailed flowering structure. These inflorescences are
composed of many small individual flowers with peltate bracts
surrounding usually 2 stamen and one pistil.
• Its known as a "non-monocot paleoherb" because of its unique
taxonomy.
Black Pepper

Checkpoint!

Summary
Today we have covered:
• Advanced Botanical Classification
and Plant Families

Next Session
We will continue to cover:
Plant Families and specific
cultivation considerations
&
Advanced Botanical Classification

Preparation
Brief Notes
• Don’t forget to log on to the LMS and download and print off your
brief notes and handouts for the next session.

Herbal Cultivation session 2

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