The document discusses how geologists date rocks using relative and absolute dating methods. It explains that relative dating involves determining rock layers' ages based on the principle of superposition, where older rocks are on the bottom and younger on top. Absolute dating uses radiometric dating to measure radioactive isotopes' decay to determine a sample's precise age. The document provides examples of the oldest dated rocks on Earth and discusses the concept of uniformitarianism, that current geologic processes can explain past events.
My mission is to deliver world-class international education power point presentation through the provision of high-quality curricula, assessment and services for the IGCSE EVM.
A wide range of materials and resources is available through my Slide share to support teachers and learners in Cambridge schools. Resources suit a variety of teaching methods in different international contexts.
The content of this power point presentation is designed to encourage reflection on the limits to growth and sustainable development for IGCSE EVM.
The content of this PowerPoint is structured as a series of learning outcomes that lay out what candidates should know, understand and be able to analyze and discuss.
Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of humankind on the planet but also with the patterns of human behavior necessary to preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way. Study is linked to the areas of new thinking in environmental management, environmental economics and the quest for alternative technologies. Classroom studies and optional coursework allow candidates to obtain a local as well as a global perspective.
The document describes the different layers that make up the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of each layer, such as the crust being the outermost solid layer and the inner core being made of solid iron and nickel. It also discusses the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, and the types of rocks that make up the different layers, such as basalt in the crust and iron and nickel in the outer core.
The Earth has four main layers: the crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core. The crust contains two types - continental and oceanic - and is composed primarily of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, and iron. Below the crust lies the mantle, a very thick layer including the asthenosphere. The inner and outer core are mostly iron and nickel and generate the Earth's magnetic field.
Earth materials, internel structure of the earth, composition of the earth Jahangir Alam
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The document discusses key concepts about earth materials including:
- The earth's crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compacted sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Common rock-forming minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, olivine, and calcite. These minerals are arranged in crystalline structures to form the three basic rock types.
- Weathering and erosion break down and transport rock materials over time in a cycle that is linked to tectonic plate movements and the formation of new
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth. It is composed of several concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of around 3,500 km. The Earth's crust is made up of various rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks undergo changes in a cyclic process called the rock cycle, where they can transform from one type to another over time through processes like cooling of magma, weathering and erosion, deposition, and changes in pressure and temperature.
Gravity erosion occurs when rocks and soil move downslope under the force of gravity. This movement transports material from higher to lower elevations.
______________
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH CRUST MINERALS AND ROCKSShahid Hussain
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The document discusses the composition of the Earth's crust and defines minerals and rocks. It explains that minerals are naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with fixed chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures, and that rocks are aggregates of minerals or organic materials. The three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are described in terms of their formation processes. The rock cycle is summarized as the continuous process by which rocks are created from magma, transformed by weathering and metamorphism, and eventually melted back down into magma.
The document discusses the structure of the Earth, including minerals, rocks, and fossils. It provides information on:
- Minerals have distinct crystal structures and chemical compositions. They form through high heat/pressure or natural processes like evaporation.
- Rocks are composed of minerals and classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through erosion and compaction, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Fossils are preserved remains or traces of ancient plants and animals found in sedimentary rock or organic matter. They can be body fossils like bones or teeth,
My mission is to deliver world-class international education power point presentation through the provision of high-quality curricula, assessment and services for the IGCSE EVM.
A wide range of materials and resources is available through my Slide share to support teachers and learners in Cambridge schools. Resources suit a variety of teaching methods in different international contexts.
The content of this power point presentation is designed to encourage reflection on the limits to growth and sustainable development for IGCSE EVM.
The content of this PowerPoint is structured as a series of learning outcomes that lay out what candidates should know, understand and be able to analyze and discuss.
Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of humankind on the planet but also with the patterns of human behavior necessary to preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way. Study is linked to the areas of new thinking in environmental management, environmental economics and the quest for alternative technologies. Classroom studies and optional coursework allow candidates to obtain a local as well as a global perspective.
The document describes the different layers that make up the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of each layer, such as the crust being the outermost solid layer and the inner core being made of solid iron and nickel. It also discusses the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, and the types of rocks that make up the different layers, such as basalt in the crust and iron and nickel in the outer core.
The Earth has four main layers: the crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core. The crust contains two types - continental and oceanic - and is composed primarily of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, and iron. Below the crust lies the mantle, a very thick layer including the asthenosphere. The inner and outer core are mostly iron and nickel and generate the Earth's magnetic field.
Earth materials, internel structure of the earth, composition of the earth Jahangir Alam
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The document discusses key concepts about earth materials including:
- The earth's crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compacted sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Common rock-forming minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, olivine, and calcite. These minerals are arranged in crystalline structures to form the three basic rock types.
- Weathering and erosion break down and transport rock materials over time in a cycle that is linked to tectonic plate movements and the formation of new
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth. It is composed of several concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of around 3,500 km. The Earth's crust is made up of various rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks undergo changes in a cyclic process called the rock cycle, where they can transform from one type to another over time through processes like cooling of magma, weathering and erosion, deposition, and changes in pressure and temperature.
Gravity erosion occurs when rocks and soil move downslope under the force of gravity. This movement transports material from higher to lower elevations.
______________
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH CRUST MINERALS AND ROCKSShahid Hussain
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The document discusses the composition of the Earth's crust and defines minerals and rocks. It explains that minerals are naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with fixed chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures, and that rocks are aggregates of minerals or organic materials. The three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are described in terms of their formation processes. The rock cycle is summarized as the continuous process by which rocks are created from magma, transformed by weathering and metamorphism, and eventually melted back down into magma.
The document discusses the structure of the Earth, including minerals, rocks, and fossils. It provides information on:
- Minerals have distinct crystal structures and chemical compositions. They form through high heat/pressure or natural processes like evaporation.
- Rocks are composed of minerals and classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through erosion and compaction, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Fossils are preserved remains or traces of ancient plants and animals found in sedimentary rock or organic matter. They can be body fossils like bones or teeth,
This document provides information on different types of rocks and methods of extracting rocks and minerals from the earth. It discusses igneous rocks which form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks which form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks which form from changes to existing rocks through heat and pressure. It also describes surface mining techniques like open-pit mining and strip mining used to extract deposits near the earth's surface, as well as subsurface mining techniques like shaft mining used for deeper deposits. Factors that affect decisions around mineral extraction include the grade, size and value of deposits as well as costs of exploration, transportation and environmental impacts.
This document provides an overview of the layers inside the Earth. It discusses the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and is divided into continental and oceanic crust. The mantle lies below the crust and is divided into upper and lower mantle. The core is at the center and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. The document also defines different rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes how rocks change between these types through geological processes in the rock cycle.
This document defines rocks and describes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It explains that rocks are divided based on how they were formed and can change between types through geological processes. The rock cycle diagram shows how rocks continuously change between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic forms over millions of years through melting, cooling, burial and erosion.
The Earth is composed of four main layers:
1) The crust is the outermost layer that ranges from 5-25 miles thick and is composed of continental and oceanic crust.
2) The mantle lies below the crust and is semi-rigid, allowing the crustal plates to move via convection currents in the upper mantle.
3) The outer core is extremely hot liquid nickel and iron.
4) The inner core is solid due to intense heat and pressure squeezing the metals.
The document summarizes the main layers and divisions of the Earth based on their chemical composition and physical properties. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust, which is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. The mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and can be divided into the upper, lower, and D'' transition zones based on seismic properties.
3. The core, which is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core, and makes up about 30% of the Earth's mass.
This document provides an overview of igneous rocks and their formation. It discusses that igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava. The cooling rate affects crystal size - slower cooling produces larger crystals and faster cooling produces smaller crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have coarse grains, while extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine grains. Texture is determined by crystal size and arrangements. Examples of textures discussed are phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy and pyroclastic.
Igneous rock, Engineering Geology, Semester IV GTUketgold
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This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification. It discusses igneous rocks being divided into plutonic (coarse-grained intrusive), volcanic (extrusive), and hypabyssal rocks based on cooling conditions. Classification is also based on mineralogy and chemistry, notably the silica content, which divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic compositions. Textural properties like grain size, mineral proportions, and cooling structures are also used to identify and categorize different igneous rock types. Common examples of each rock class are provided.
Rocks have different chemical and physical properties that make them useful in our everyday lives. We use rocks for construction, fuel, art, and other purposes. Rocks are classified into three main groups based on their method of formation: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of molten material from within the Earth. Their texture, mineral composition, and other features provide clues to how quickly or slowly they cooled.
igneous rocks formation and their classificationMazhar Ali
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This document provides an introduction and overview of igneous rocks. It defines igneous rocks as those formed by the solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks are classified based on whether they solidified below ground as intrusive rocks or above ground as extrusive rocks. Some common igneous rocks are described, including granite, gabbro, basalt, dolerite, and diorite. Their typical compositions and properties are outlined.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their formation, classification, texture, and examples. Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are classified based on their mineral composition, silica content, and mode of occurrence (intrusive or extrusive). Texture refers to crystal size and shape, which depends on the cooling rate. Examples discussed include granite, gabbro, and basalt. Intrusive igneous bodies can form various structures within existing rocks, such as sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, depending on how the magma interacts with the surrounding rock layers.
Types, importance and uses of rocks inSameer Nawab
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This document discusses the types, importance, and uses of rocks in construction. It outlines three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and describes their formation processes. It then discusses specific rock types like granite, limestone, sandstone, and marble, outlining their common construction applications like buildings, monuments, and bridges. The document emphasizes the importance of understanding a rock's properties for determining appropriate construction uses and foundations. Proper geological analysis is important for engineering projects to be built safely and economically.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
All Igneous rock textures with examples in easy and simple way to understand and increase microscopic studies skills and the way to easily identify igneous rocks under polarized microscope.
This document provides an overview of minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle presented by a student from Suez University. It discusses the main topics of minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Specifically, it describes the composition and properties of minerals, how the three main rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes, and provides examples of common rock types for each category. The document aims to educate the reader on basic concepts in petrology and the classification of earth materials.
Igneous rock textures are controlled by cooling rate, with rapid cooling resulting in smaller crystals and slower cooling allowing larger crystals to form. Textures provide information about cooling/crystallization rates and phase relations during crystallization. Textures describe grain features like size, shape, orientation, and boundaries, seen in hand samples or microscopically. Common textures include phaneritic (with evident crystals), porphyritic (with larger phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass), and graphic (with exsolved minerals forming angular shapes). Compositionally zoned crystals also occur.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. There are three main types based on formation environment: volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic. Volcanic rocks form from lava at the Earth's surface and are typically fine-grained. Plutonic rocks form deep underground and are usually coarse-grained due to slow cooling. Texture depends on factors like cooling rate and mineral composition, ranging from glassy to phaneritic. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy and chemistry, particularly their silica content.
Pumice rock is the lightest and only rock that can float on water due to cooling very fast underground, which left it very light with many holes. It has a rough texture and is used to rub off dead skin. Granite is one of the most common rocks on Earth's surface, used for countertops and buildings. It cooled slowly, resulting in similarly sized crystals as marble. Basalt is very hard and forms from lava; it cooled quickly but with small crystals. Obsidian forms from volcanic glass and was historically used for tools since it is very sharp when fractured. Scoria is a volcanic rock that cooled partially underwater, leaving it with holes like pumice.
Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. It is classified based on several properties including genesis, texture, color, and chemical composition. Based on genesis, igneous rocks are classified as plutonic (cooled at depth), hypabyssal (cooled at shallow depth), or volcanic (cooled on the surface). Texture classifications include phaneritic, aphenitic, porphyritic, and poikilitic. Color classifications are based on the percentage of mafic minerals and include leucocratic, mesocratic, melanocratic, and hypermelanic. Chemical composition classifications include peraluminous, metaaluminous, subaluminous, and several
The lithosphere is Earth's outer layer consisting of soil and rock. It ranges from 64-96 km thick and is broken into tectonic plates. The lithosphere includes two types - oceanic lithosphere associated with oceanic crust in ocean basins, and continental lithosphere associated with continental crust. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle, which is divided into the asthenosphere and mesosphere, and below that is the core consisting of an inner solid section and outer molten section.
The document discusses the formation of different types of rocks through various geological processes. It describes how igneous rocks form from cooling magma either below (intrusive) or above (extrusive) the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering, erosion, deposition and lithification of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, such as in subduction zones or near magma intrusions. The key driving forces behind the continuous rock cycle are the Earth's internal heat and convection currents, along with processes at the surface influenced by the sun such as weathering.
This document defines what a mineral is and describes its key properties. A mineral must be 1) naturally occurring 2) solid 3) have an orderly crystalline structure and well-defined chemical composition. Important identifying characteristics of minerals include crystal structure, hardness, color, streak, luster, fluorescence, and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified based on their main chemical elements, with silicates and carbonates being particularly important. Commercially valuable minerals can be extracted for metals, industrial uses, or as gemstones.
This document provides information on different types of rocks and methods of extracting rocks and minerals from the earth. It discusses igneous rocks which form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks which form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks which form from changes to existing rocks through heat and pressure. It also describes surface mining techniques like open-pit mining and strip mining used to extract deposits near the earth's surface, as well as subsurface mining techniques like shaft mining used for deeper deposits. Factors that affect decisions around mineral extraction include the grade, size and value of deposits as well as costs of exploration, transportation and environmental impacts.
This document provides an overview of the layers inside the Earth. It discusses the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer and is divided into continental and oceanic crust. The mantle lies below the crust and is divided into upper and lower mantle. The core is at the center and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. The document also defines different rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes how rocks change between these types through geological processes in the rock cycle.
This document defines rocks and describes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It explains that rocks are divided based on how they were formed and can change between types through geological processes. The rock cycle diagram shows how rocks continuously change between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic forms over millions of years through melting, cooling, burial and erosion.
The Earth is composed of four main layers:
1) The crust is the outermost layer that ranges from 5-25 miles thick and is composed of continental and oceanic crust.
2) The mantle lies below the crust and is semi-rigid, allowing the crustal plates to move via convection currents in the upper mantle.
3) The outer core is extremely hot liquid nickel and iron.
4) The inner core is solid due to intense heat and pressure squeezing the metals.
The document summarizes the main layers and divisions of the Earth based on their chemical composition and physical properties. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust, which is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. The mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and can be divided into the upper, lower, and D'' transition zones based on seismic properties.
3. The core, which is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core, and makes up about 30% of the Earth's mass.
This document provides an overview of igneous rocks and their formation. It discusses that igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava. The cooling rate affects crystal size - slower cooling produces larger crystals and faster cooling produces smaller crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have coarse grains, while extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine grains. Texture is determined by crystal size and arrangements. Examples of textures discussed are phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy and pyroclastic.
Igneous rock, Engineering Geology, Semester IV GTUketgold
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This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification. It discusses igneous rocks being divided into plutonic (coarse-grained intrusive), volcanic (extrusive), and hypabyssal rocks based on cooling conditions. Classification is also based on mineralogy and chemistry, notably the silica content, which divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic compositions. Textural properties like grain size, mineral proportions, and cooling structures are also used to identify and categorize different igneous rock types. Common examples of each rock class are provided.
Rocks have different chemical and physical properties that make them useful in our everyday lives. We use rocks for construction, fuel, art, and other purposes. Rocks are classified into three main groups based on their method of formation: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of molten material from within the Earth. Their texture, mineral composition, and other features provide clues to how quickly or slowly they cooled.
igneous rocks formation and their classificationMazhar Ali
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This document provides an introduction and overview of igneous rocks. It defines igneous rocks as those formed by the solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks are classified based on whether they solidified below ground as intrusive rocks or above ground as extrusive rocks. Some common igneous rocks are described, including granite, gabbro, basalt, dolerite, and diorite. Their typical compositions and properties are outlined.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their formation, classification, texture, and examples. Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are classified based on their mineral composition, silica content, and mode of occurrence (intrusive or extrusive). Texture refers to crystal size and shape, which depends on the cooling rate. Examples discussed include granite, gabbro, and basalt. Intrusive igneous bodies can form various structures within existing rocks, such as sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, depending on how the magma interacts with the surrounding rock layers.
Types, importance and uses of rocks inSameer Nawab
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This document discusses the types, importance, and uses of rocks in construction. It outlines three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and describes their formation processes. It then discusses specific rock types like granite, limestone, sandstone, and marble, outlining their common construction applications like buildings, monuments, and bridges. The document emphasizes the importance of understanding a rock's properties for determining appropriate construction uses and foundations. Proper geological analysis is important for engineering projects to be built safely and economically.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
All Igneous rock textures with examples in easy and simple way to understand and increase microscopic studies skills and the way to easily identify igneous rocks under polarized microscope.
This document provides an overview of minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle presented by a student from Suez University. It discusses the main topics of minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Specifically, it describes the composition and properties of minerals, how the three main rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes, and provides examples of common rock types for each category. The document aims to educate the reader on basic concepts in petrology and the classification of earth materials.
Igneous rock textures are controlled by cooling rate, with rapid cooling resulting in smaller crystals and slower cooling allowing larger crystals to form. Textures provide information about cooling/crystallization rates and phase relations during crystallization. Textures describe grain features like size, shape, orientation, and boundaries, seen in hand samples or microscopically. Common textures include phaneritic (with evident crystals), porphyritic (with larger phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass), and graphic (with exsolved minerals forming angular shapes). Compositionally zoned crystals also occur.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. There are three main types based on formation environment: volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic. Volcanic rocks form from lava at the Earth's surface and are typically fine-grained. Plutonic rocks form deep underground and are usually coarse-grained due to slow cooling. Texture depends on factors like cooling rate and mineral composition, ranging from glassy to phaneritic. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy and chemistry, particularly their silica content.
Pumice rock is the lightest and only rock that can float on water due to cooling very fast underground, which left it very light with many holes. It has a rough texture and is used to rub off dead skin. Granite is one of the most common rocks on Earth's surface, used for countertops and buildings. It cooled slowly, resulting in similarly sized crystals as marble. Basalt is very hard and forms from lava; it cooled quickly but with small crystals. Obsidian forms from volcanic glass and was historically used for tools since it is very sharp when fractured. Scoria is a volcanic rock that cooled partially underwater, leaving it with holes like pumice.
Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. It is classified based on several properties including genesis, texture, color, and chemical composition. Based on genesis, igneous rocks are classified as plutonic (cooled at depth), hypabyssal (cooled at shallow depth), or volcanic (cooled on the surface). Texture classifications include phaneritic, aphenitic, porphyritic, and poikilitic. Color classifications are based on the percentage of mafic minerals and include leucocratic, mesocratic, melanocratic, and hypermelanic. Chemical composition classifications include peraluminous, metaaluminous, subaluminous, and several
The lithosphere is Earth's outer layer consisting of soil and rock. It ranges from 64-96 km thick and is broken into tectonic plates. The lithosphere includes two types - oceanic lithosphere associated with oceanic crust in ocean basins, and continental lithosphere associated with continental crust. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle, which is divided into the asthenosphere and mesosphere, and below that is the core consisting of an inner solid section and outer molten section.
The document discusses the formation of different types of rocks through various geological processes. It describes how igneous rocks form from cooling magma either below (intrusive) or above (extrusive) the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering, erosion, deposition and lithification of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, such as in subduction zones or near magma intrusions. The key driving forces behind the continuous rock cycle are the Earth's internal heat and convection currents, along with processes at the surface influenced by the sun such as weathering.
This document defines what a mineral is and describes its key properties. A mineral must be 1) naturally occurring 2) solid 3) have an orderly crystalline structure and well-defined chemical composition. Important identifying characteristics of minerals include crystal structure, hardness, color, streak, luster, fluorescence, and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified based on their main chemical elements, with silicates and carbonates being particularly important. Commercially valuable minerals can be extracted for metals, industrial uses, or as gemstones.
The document provides information on the structure and composition of Earth. It describes the four main layers from outermost to innermost - crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust contains different rock types and is thicker under continents. The mantle is the largest layer and has three zones. The outer core is molten and generates Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is solid and dense. Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates consisting of crust and upper mantle. The document also discusses minerals that make up rocks and the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Physical Geography Lecture 11 - The Lithosphere 111416angelaorr
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The document discusses geologic time and how rocks are dated. It describes how radiometric dating is used to determine the absolute age of rocks by measuring radioactive decay. The oldest rocks on Earth are around 3.96 billion years old. It also discusses the theory of uniformitarianism and how the same geologic processes that shape the Earth today have operated throughout its history.
This document discusses minerals and their properties. It defines minerals as naturally occurring, inorganic solids that have a definite crystalline structure and chemical composition. It lists the nine main physical properties used to identify minerals, including hardness, crystal structure, color, streak, luster, cleavage, fracture, specific gravity, and others. It discusses how over 3,500 minerals are known and how 20 minerals make up 95% of rocks. The document emphasizes that chemical composition provides the most stable basis for classifying minerals. Students are assigned to identify minerals and their common uses based on relevant physical properties.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures. There are over 4,000 known mineral types on Earth. Minerals form through natural geological processes as magma cools underground or ions crystallize out of solution. A mineral's crystal structure and properties like hardness, luster, streak, and cleavage can help identify different mineral types. Common rock-forming silicate minerals include feldspar and quartz, while calcite is a major carbonate mineral.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures. There are over 4,000 known mineral types on Earth. Minerals form through natural geological processes as magma cools underground or ions crystallize out of solution. A mineral's crystal structure and properties like hardness, luster, streak, and cleavage can help identify different mineral types. Common rock-forming silicate minerals include feldspar and quartz, while calcite is a major carbonate mineral.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures. There are over 4,000 known mineral types on Earth. Minerals form through natural geological processes as magma cools underground or ions crystallize out of solution. A mineral's crystal structure and properties like hardness, luster, streak, and cleavage can help identify different mineral types. Common rock-forming silicate minerals include feldspar and quartz, while calcite is a major carbonate mineral.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures. There are over 4,000 known mineral types on Earth. Minerals form through natural geological processes as magma cools underground or ions crystallize out of solution. A mineral's crystal structure and properties like hardness, luster, streak, and cleavage can help identify different mineral types. Common rock-forming silicate minerals include feldspar and quartz, while calcite is a major carbonate mineral.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures. There are over 4,000 known mineral types on Earth. Minerals form through natural geological processes as magma cools underground or ions crystallize out of solution. A mineral's crystal structure and properties like hardness, luster, streak, and cleavage can help identify different mineral types. Common rock-forming silicate minerals include feldspar and quartz, while calcite is a major carbonate mineral.
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It discusses how Earth's early molten stage led to differentiation of the crust. It also explains that minerals have unique crystalline structures while rocks are aggregates of minerals. The main rock types - igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic - are formed by different geological processes. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through compaction and cementation, and metamorphic rocks form through heat and pressure altering existing rocks.
This document provides information about minerals and their properties. It defines a mineral as being naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, and having a definite crystal structure and chemical composition. Minerals form through crystallization as magma or hot water solutions cool. Common minerals include quartz, calcite, and pyrite. Minerals have various properties that can be used to identify them such as color, crystal structure, hardness, and density. Many minerals are important resources and are used to make products like glass, jewelry, and metals. Metals are extracted from minerals through mining and smelting.
The document discusses minerals, defining them as naturally occurring inorganic solids with a definite crystalline structure and chemical composition. There are over 3,500 known minerals that make up Earth's crust. The majority of rocks are formed from combinations of just 20 minerals. Minerals have several physical properties that can be used to identify them, including color, luster, streak (powder color), and hardness on the Mohs scale. Silicates and nonsilicates are the two main groups of rock-forming minerals.
Minerals form in two main ways - some cool from magma underground or lava above ground, while others form through evaporation of mineral-rich waters. Minerals have distinct properties that can be used to identify them, such as their crystal structure, cleavage/fracture patterns, color streak, luster, and hardness. Over 4,000 minerals have been identified that make up the building blocks of rocks.
Mineral - naturally occurring, inorganic solid with orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition.
These are the basic building blocks of rocks.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with a definite chemical composition and physical properties. The study of minerals is called mineralogy. Minerals can be identified by their crystal structure, hardness, luster, color, density and other physical properties. The most abundant elements in Earth's crust are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Minerals form through processes such as cooling of magma, evaporation of briny liquids, and precipitation from fluids. Rocks are assemblages of minerals or mineraloids in a solid state and can be igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.
This document provides information about minerals and their properties. It defines minerals as naturally occurring solids with a crystal structure and definite chemical composition. Minerals form through crystallization as magma or solutions cool. They can crystallize on the surface through evaporation or underground as magma cools. The size of mineral crystals depends on the cooling rate, with slower cooling deep underground producing larger crystals. Minerals have many uses including in jewelry, metals, construction materials, and tools. Metals are extracted from ores through mining and smelting to remove the metal.
This document provides instructions for a geology lab involving the classification of minerals. It discusses three parts:
1. Using the scientific method to classify samples based on observable properties like color, texture, and hardness. Students will form groups and create a flow chart to categorize the provided samples.
2. Explaining Mohs hardness scale and having students compare samples' hardness. Common minerals are given as examples to practice determining relative hardness.
3. Identifying samples based on their cleavage, whether they break along smooth planes or fracture irregularly. Definitions and examples of different cleavage types like cubic, rhombohedral, and perfect one-direction cleavage are given for key minerals like halite, calcite, gy
This document provides instructions for a geology lab involving the classification of minerals. It discusses three parts:
1. Using the scientific method to classify samples based on observable properties like color, texture, and hardness. Students will form groups and create a flow chart to categorize provided samples.
2. Explaining Mohs hardness scale and having students compare samples' hardness. Common minerals are given as examples to practice determining relative hardness.
3. Identifying samples based on their cleavage, whether they break along smooth planes or fracture irregularly. Examples are given of common minerals' cleavage properties like calcite's rhombohedral cleavage.
The summary highlights the key aspects of the lab - using observable properties and established
This document provides an overview of minerals and their properties. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and ordered internal structure. Minerals are classified based on their major elemental compositions, which include silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, carbonates, and native metals. Their crystal structures and physical properties like crystal form, cleavage, luster, color, streak, hardness, density, magnetism, taste, feel, and acid reactivity enable their identification and classification. The document outlines these compositional categories and diagnostic physical properties of minerals in detail.
Similar to GEOG 100--Lecture 11--The Lithosphere (20)
Physical Geography Lecture 17 - Oceans and Coastal Geomorphology 120716angelaorr
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This document discusses various topics related to coastal geomorphology including ocean currents, tides, waves, and the landforms shaped by coastal processes. It describes how tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Spring tides occur when these three bodies are aligned and produce the highest tides, while neap tides occur at right angles and have lower tides. Extreme tides over 15 meters occur in the Bay of Fundy. Waves are affected by factors like fetch, wind strength, and duration. Refraction disperses wave energy at headlands and concentrates it in bays, shaping distinctive coastal landforms. Human structures can disrupt sediment flows and cause shoreline erosion over time.
Physical Geography Lecture 14 - Folding, Faulting, and Earthquakes 112816angelaorr
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Diastrophism. Compression, tension, and shear stresses. Crustal fold structures. Faults. Fault zone landscapes (normal and reverse faults). Strike-slip/transform/transcurrent faults. Transform fault structures (landscapes). Earthquakes. Focus/hypocenter, epicenter. Measuring earthquakes: seismic waves, seismograph, seismogram. Quantitative vs. qualitative measurements. Quantitative: Richter scale and Moment magnitude. Qualitative: Mercalli Scale. Loma Prieta Quake, 1989. Seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. P-waves. S-waves. L-waves. R-waves. Earthquakes and their relationship to plate tectonics. Pinpointing an earthquake epicenter. Earthquake hazard map of the U.S. Earthquake hazards. Liquefaction. The Pacific Ring of Fire. Tsunamis.
Rigid Earth Theory. Plasticity. Isostacy. Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift. Wegener's lines of evidence. Harry Hess and more evidence. Power source = convection currents in the mantle. Theory of Plate Tectonics. Plate boundaries: Divergent (spreading centers), Convergent (subduction zones), Lateral (transform faults). Three types of subduction zones. Hot spots. Accreted Terranes. Cratons. Continental Shields. Topography. (maps for lab)
Physical Geography Lecture 10 - Global Climates 110916angelaorr
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Climate. How climate is determined. Climate is important because it provides resources for humans. Climate classification. The Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Scheme. The Major Climate Groups. Subclassifications of climate. Climate map. Climographs. Climates, climographs, examples, details: A Climates. B Climates. C Climates. D Climates. E Climates. H Climates.
Physical Geography Lecture 09 - Water Resources (Ground water and ice) 110716angelaorr
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Movement and locations of water. Underground water. Soil water belt, subsurface flow. Percolation. Porosity and Permeability. Hydrologic Zones. Zone of aeration, zone of saturation, water table, effluent and influent condition. Zone of confined water, aquaclude, aquifer, artesian well. Waterless zone. Groundwater management. Groundwater management issues. Aquifer recharge, cone of depression, subsidence, groundwater contamination. The case of Venice Italy. Hydrothermal activity. Hot springs, geysers, fumaroles. Permafrost, melting permafrost. Glaciers, alpine and continental glaciers. Melting glaciers. Lakes. Destruction of the Aral Sea. Swamps and marshes. Streams.
Physical Geography Lecture 08 - Precipitation, Air Masses, and Storms 110216angelaorr
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The formation of precipitation. Types of precipitation. Global and U.S. precipitation. Air masses, source regions, classification. Air masses of North America. Fronts. Warm front, cold front, stationary front, occluded front. Life-cycle of a midlatitude cyclone. Weather changes with the passage of a cold front. Midlatitude anticyclones. Lightning, thunder. Tornadoes. Hurricanes. Storm surge.
Physical Geography Lecture 07 - Clouds and Transfer of Latent Heat 102616angelaorr
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Global water budget. Hydrologic cycle. Residence time. Latent Heat Transfer diagram. Saturation. Factors affecting rate of evaporation. Vapor pressure. Relative Humidity. Dew point. The adiabatic process. DAR, LCL, latent heat of condensation, SAR. Stable vs Unstable air. Clouds. Fog. Dew.
Air pressure. Relationships between pressure, density, and temperature (confined vs. unconfined gases). Measuring air pressure. Isobars. The pressure gradient force. Wind. Convection cell diagram. Out of the high, into the low. Local winds (sea/land breezes, mountain/valley breezes, Chinook/Santa Ana winds).
Physical Geography Lecture 05 - Atmospheric Energy and Global Temps 101216angelaorr
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The document discusses factors that influence global temperatures, including Earth's energy balance, net radiation, the greenhouse effect, temperature measurement systems, daily and seasonal temperature variations, temperature inversions, and factors like latitude, elevation, proximity to water or urban areas, and ocean currents. It provides diagrams to illustrate concepts like hypothetical radiation balances, temperature profiles, isotherms, and ocean circulation patterns. It also includes review questions to check understanding of topics covered.
The document discusses key concepts about Earth's atmosphere including:
1. The atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen gases. It also contains variable amounts of gases like carbon dioxide and ozone that influence climate.
2. Solar radiation is processed as it passes through the atmosphere, being scattered, absorbed, or transmitted. Particulates play an important role by reflecting or absorbing sunlight.
3. Temperature varies with altitude, decreasing in the troposphere due to conduction and the environmental lapse rate, and increasing in the stratosphere due to ozone absorption of UV light.
Physical Geography Lecture 04 - Earth's Energy and Seasons 10.03.16angelaorr
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The document discusses Earth's orientation in space and how its axial tilt, precession, and elliptical orbit affect seasonal changes in insolation levels. It explains that Earth's axial tilt varies between 21.5-24.5 degrees over tens of thousands of years, causing variations in seasonal temperatures. The tilt creates solstices when the sun is directly overhead at one of the Tropics, and equinoxes when it is overhead at the equator. Regions receive different levels of solar radiation depending on latitude and season, with implications for Earth's global heat balance.
Maps are a geographer's tool for representing the three-dimensional real world in two dimensions. While flat maps necessarily distort features like shape, size or direction to varying degrees, cartographers use map projections to minimize these distortions. Common projections include cylindrical, azimuthal, conic, and pseudocylindrical projections. Topographic maps produced by the USGS precisely represent land elevations and relief using contour lines. However, what and what is not represented on maps can reflect biases and influence how we perceive the world.
Uniformitarianism. Eratosthenes. Earth's size and shape. Centrifugal force. Earth's rotation and revolution. Navigation: great circles and small circles. The geographic grid. Time zones. Review
Physical Geography Lecture 01 - What Is Geography 092616angelaorr
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Introduction to Physical Geography. What is Geography? 5 Fundamental spatial concepts of Geography. Geography is holistic. Subdivisions of Geography. Systems science. Earth's 4 spheres. Review.
The Mother of All Sciences: Geography As A Holistic Homeschool Frameworkangelaorr
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The Mother of All Sciences: Geography As A Holistic Homeschool Framework. Presented at the Homeschool Association of California (HSC) Adventures in Homeschooling Conference, Aug. 2, 2014.
The document discusses various concepts related to folding, faulting, and earthquakes. It defines diastrophism as large-scale deformation of the earth's crust. It also describes different types of stresses that cause folding and faulting, including compression, tension, and shearing stresses. Additionally, it outlines different types of crustal fold structures like monoclines, synclines, and anticlines. The document then discusses fault types and features associated with transform faults. Finally, it examines seismic waves and how earthquakes are measured, and relates earthquake activity to plate tectonics.
Plate tectonics theory proposes that the Earth's crust is made up of rigid plates that move over Earth's mantle. Early evidence included matching rock formations and fossils on separated continents, as well as seafloor mapping showing ocean crust is only 100 million years old. Convection currents in the mantle provide the mechanism for plate movements. Plates can pull apart at mid-ocean ridges, slam together at subduction zones, or slide past each other at transform boundaries, causing volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building. The theory best explains geological evidence and is now widely accepted.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
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In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
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These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
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đđ˘đŹđđŽđŹđŹ đđĄđ đđđ đđŽđŤđŤđ˘đđŽđĽđŽđŚ đ˘đ§ đđĄđ đđĄđ˘đĽđ˘đŠđŠđ˘đ§đđŹ:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
đđąđŠđĽđđ˘đ§ đđĄđ đđđđŽđŤđ đđ§đ đđđ¨đŠđ đ¨đ đđ§ đđ§đđŤđđŠđŤđđ§đđŽđŤ:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
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IvĂĄn Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
6. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
4
7. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
4
8. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
âAbsolute time
4
9. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
âAbsolute time
⢠Radiometric dating
4
10. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
âAbsolute time
⢠Radiometric dating
âAtoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into
stable forms
4
11. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
âAbsolute time
⢠Radiometric dating
âAtoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into
stable forms
âEach isotope has a specific decay rate
4
12. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
âAbsolute time
⢠Radiometric dating
âAtoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into
stable forms
âEach isotope has a specific decay rate
âHalf-life--the length of time it takes one half the isotope to
decay
4
13. How do we date rocks?
âRelative time
⢠Superpostion
âOldest rocks on the bottom, youngest rocks on the top
âAbsolute time
⢠Radiometric dating
âAtoms with unstable nuclei (isotopes) decay into
stable forms
âEach isotope has a specific decay rate
âHalf-life--the length of time it takes one half the isotope to
decay
âMeasuring the ratio of unstable to stable material
gives a date (1:1 means one half-life has passed)
4
15. The oldest rocks
ďŽ Earth
ďŹrst condensed and formed into a
planet about 4.6 billion years ago.
5
16. The oldest rocks
ďŽ Earth ďŹrst condensed and formed into a
planet about 4.6 billion years ago.
ďŽ Oldest rocks are from the Acasta Gneiss
in northwestern Canada: 3.96 billion
years old
5
17. The oldest rocks
ďŽ Earth ďŹrst condensed and formed into a
planet about 4.6 billion years ago.
ďŽ Oldest rocks are from the Acasta Gneiss
in northwestern Canada: 3.96 billion
years old
ďŽ Oldest grains of rock, from Western
Australia: bet. 4.2 and 4.4 billion years
old
5
19. Uniformitarianism
⢠Uniformitarianism
ââThe present is the key to the past.â
âIn other words: The same physical processes
active in the environment today have been
operating throughout geologic time.
21. Earthâs magnetic field
⢠Circulations within Earthâs inner and outer
cores may be the mechanism for the
magnetic field, called the magnetosphere,
that protects Earth from solar wind and
cosmic radiation.
8
22. Earthâs magnetic field
⢠Circulations within Earthâs inner and outer
cores may be the mechanism for the
magnetic field, called the magnetosphere,
that protects Earth from solar wind and
cosmic radiation.
⢠The magnetic north and south poles migrate
8
23. Earthâs magnetic field
⢠Circulations within Earthâs inner and outer
cores may be the mechanism for the
magnetic field, called the magnetosphere,
that protects Earth from solar wind and
cosmic radiation.
⢠The magnetic north and south poles migrate
⢠Geomagnetic reversal also happens in
irregular intervals
8
25. Which elements make up
Earthâs crust?
⢠Core
âFe, Ni, Si (and/or) O
⢠Mantle
âO, Si, Mg, Fe, Ca, Al
⢠99% of the crust is made up of 8 elements:
âO, Si (make up 74.3%)
âAl, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg
These elements, and trace others, combine to
make up Earthâs minerals and rocks...
10
28. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
29. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid
30. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid
with a definite
31. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid
with a definite
(but generally not fixed)
32. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid
with a definite
(but generally not fixed)
chemical composition
33. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid
with a definite
(but generally not fixed)
chemical composition
and a highly-ordered
atomic arrangement.
34. What is a Mineral?
A mineral isâŚ
a naturally-occurring,
homogeneous solid
with a definite
(but generally not fixed)
chemical composition
and a highly-ordered
atomic arrangement.
It is usually formed through
inorganic processes.
46. ...homogeneous solid...
⢠It canât start out as one mineral and become
another mineral halfway through (but it can
change color and still be the same mineral)
47. ...homogeneous solid...
⢠It canât start out as one mineral and become
another mineral halfway through (but it can
change color and still be the same mineral)
Tourmaline (Elbaite variety):
Na(Li1.5,Al1.5)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)4
51. ...definite (but generally not fixed)
chemical composition...
⢠Quartz
âSiO2 (silicon dioxide)
⢠Olivine
52. ...definite (but generally not fixed)
chemical composition...
⢠Quartz
âSiO2 (silicon dioxide)
⢠Olivine
â(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
53. ...highly-ordered atomic
arrangement.
⢠Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that
are not all bonded together into a structure.
54. ...highly-ordered atomic
arrangement.
⢠Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that
are not all bonded together into a structure.
⢠When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together...
forming...what?
55. ...highly-ordered atomic
arrangement.
⢠Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that
are not all bonded together into a structure.
⢠When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together...
forming...what?
56. ...highly-ordered atomic
arrangement.
⢠Carbon dioxide gas is made up of atoms that
are not all bonded together into a structure.
⢠When frozen, CO2 IS bonded together...
forming...what?
57. The shape of the mineral crystal is the result of
its internal atomic structure.
rhombohedrons
flat sheets muscovite mica
chains
cubes
rhodochrosite
asbestos (crocidolite) galena
58. What if a substance doesnât fit the
whole definition?
59. What if a substance doesnât fit the
whole definition?
⢠Itâs a mineraloid.
60. What if a substance doesnât fit the
whole definition?
⢠Itâs a mineraloid.
Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE.
61. What if a substance doesnât fit the
whole definition?
⢠Itâs a mineraloid.
Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE.
⢠Glass is a mineraloid. It has an âamorphousâ atomic
structure.
62. What if a substance doesnât fit the
whole definition?
⢠Itâs a mineraloid.
Some substances look like minerals--but they LIE.
⢠Glass is a mineraloid. It has an âamorphousâ atomic
structure.
-O
- Si
63.
64. As light passes through the glass panels, it is distorted
by the ripples in the glass. Which panel is the new one?
67. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
68. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
69. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
70. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
71. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
72. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
â Diatoms and radiolarians in the
ocean
73. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
â Diatoms and radiolarians in the
ocean
74. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
â Diatoms and radiolarians in the
ocean
75. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
â Diatoms and radiolarians in the
ocean
⢠Silicate minerals
76. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
â Diatoms and radiolarians in the
ocean
⢠Silicate minerals
⢠Their skeletons are used as polishing
agents...
77. Biogenic minerals: Exceptions to
the âinorganic processesâ rule
Formed by living things
â The pearl and shells of oysters
⢠Aragonite
â The main mineral found in human
bones and teeth
⢠Apatite
â Diatoms and radiolarians in the
ocean
⢠Silicate minerals
⢠Their skeletons are used as polishing
agents...
...(in your toothpaste!)
83. Is coal a mineral?
No.
Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
84. Is coal a mineral?
No.
Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
âThey have no definite chemical composition
85. Is coal a mineral?
No.
Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
âThey have no definite chemical composition
âThey have no ordered atomic arrangement
86. Is coal a mineral?
No.
Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
âThey have no definite chemical composition
âThey have no ordered atomic arrangement
Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids
87. Is coal a mineral?
No.
Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
âThey have no definite chemical composition
âThey have no ordered atomic arrangement
Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids
ButâŚThey can form minerals under certain conditions
88. Is coal a mineral?
No.
Coal, petroleum, and peat are NOT minerals.
âThey have no definite chemical composition
âThey have no ordered atomic arrangement
Petroleum, coal and peat are mineraloids
ButâŚThey can form minerals under certain conditions
âIf coal beds are heated to high temperatures and the
carbon in them is crystallized, they can form the mineral,
graphite
91. Mineral Formation:
Non-organic formation
⢠Minerals can form from:
âMagma
92. Mineral Formation:
Non-organic formation
⢠Minerals can form from:
âMagma
âSteam (these minerals are called vaporites)
93. Mineral Formation:
Non-organic formation
⢠Minerals can form from:
âMagma
âSteam (these minerals are called vaporites)
âMineral components left behind when water
evaporates (these are called evaporites)
94. Mineral Formation:
Non-organic formation
⢠Minerals can form from:
âMagma
âSteam (these minerals are called vaporites)
âMineral components left behind when water
evaporates (these are called evaporites)
âMineral components dissolved in water that solidify
again (these are called precipitates)
95. From cooled magma
⢠The mineral components come together in the
melt and harden as molten rock material
solidifies
98. From steam: vaporites
⢠Vaporite
âWater near a magma source heats up, dissolves
mineral components in surrounding rocks, and
carries them away
99. From steam: vaporites
⢠Vaporite
âWater near a magma source heats up, dissolves
mineral components in surrounding rocks, and
carries them away
âThe steam condenses at the surface. The mineral
compounds also âcondenseâ and solidify.
100. From steam: vaporites
⢠Vaporite
âWater near a magma source heats up, dissolves
mineral components in surrounding rocks, and
carries them away
âThe steam condenses at the surface. The mineral
compounds also âcondenseâ and solidify.
101. From steam: vaporites
⢠Vaporite
Harvesting sulfur crystals from a volcano in Indonesia
âWater near a magma source heats up, dissolves
mineral components in surrounding rocks, and
carries them away
âThe steam condenses at the surface. The mineral
compounds also âcondenseâ and solidify.
âCommonly found around
volcanic vents, these sulfur
crystals are forming around
Kilauea Crater, Hawaii. Also
found near oceanic volcanic
vents (at spreading centers).
105. From evaporating water: evaporites
⢠Evaporite
âWater evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral
compounds that were dissolved in the water
106. From evaporating water: evaporites
⢠Evaporite
âWater evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral
compounds that were dissolved in the water
107. From evaporating water: evaporites
⢠Evaporite
âWater evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral
compounds that were dissolved in the water
âHint: âPlease pass the halite!â
108. From evaporating water: evaporites
⢠Evaporite
âWater evaporates, but leaves behind any mineral
compounds that were dissolved in the water
âHint: âPlease pass the halite!â
Salt crystals like these form in
salt beds along the edge of
Highway 84, just before the
Dumbarton Bridge.
111. Mineral Formation:
Non-organic formation
⢠Precipitate
âWhen in too high a concentration to remain
dissolved in a liquid, the mineral components
condense and may actually ârainâ out of the
solution
112. Mineral Formation:
Non-organic formation
⢠Precipitate
âWhen in too high a concentration to remain
dissolved in a liquid, the mineral components
condense and may actually ârainâ out of the
solution
âOften occurs when warmer water, which can
hold more dissolved solids, cools slightly
113. From dissolved solids: precipitates
Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas,
and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium
carbonate precipitating out of the water
114. From dissolved solids: precipitates
Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas,
and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium
carbonate precipitating out of the water
115. From dissolved solids: precipitates
Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas,
and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium
carbonate precipitating out of the water
116. From dissolved solids: precipitates
Oolitic beach sand from the Caribbean, the Bahamas,
and Great Salt Lake in Utah form from calcium
carbonate precipitating out of the water
117. From dissolved solids: precipitates
Pyrite âsand dollarsâ form in sea water and collect on the
ocean floor
122. What is a Rock?
⢠A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or
more minerals or mineral materials
âA few rock varieties are made up almost
entirely of one mineralâthis is called a
pegmatite
123. What is a Rock?
⢠A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or
more minerals or mineral materials
âA few rock varieties are made up almost
entirely of one mineralâthis is called a
pegmatite
⢠Example: massive accumulations of halite
124. The Rock Cycle
⢠Rocks have been continuously forming and
reforming over millions and millions of years
⢠The rock cycle is a closed flow system
128. What drives the rock cycle?
⢠Earthâs internal heat
âRadioactive decay from its initial formation
129. What drives the rock cycle?
⢠Earthâs internal heat
âRadioactive decay from its initial formation
⢠the power source for the flow system
130. What drives the rock cycle?
⢠Earthâs internal heat
âRadioactive decay from its initial formation
⢠the power source for the flow system
⢠The sun
131. What drives the rock cycle?
⢠Earthâs internal heat
âRadioactive decay from its initial formation
⢠the power source for the flow system
⢠The sun
âSecondary power source
132. What drives the rock cycle?
⢠Earthâs internal heat
âRadioactive decay from its initial formation
⢠the power source for the flow system
⢠The sun
âSecondary power source
âDrives weather systems that erode material
136. Convection Currents
⢠Slow-moving convection
currents within the mantle
transfer heat from the outer
core to the upper mantle
⢠The convergence and
divergence of these currents
near the surface is believed to
be one of the driving forces
behind the movement of
Earthâs crustal plates
138. The 3 Classes of Rock
⢠Classified based on the processes which
form them
139. The 3 Classes of Rock
⢠Classified based on the processes which
form them
âIgneous rocks
140. The 3 Classes of Rock
⢠Classified based on the processes which
form them
âIgneous rocks
âSedimentary rocks
141. The 3 Classes of Rock
⢠Classified based on the processes which
form them
âIgneous rocks
âSedimentary rocks
âMetamorphic rocks
142. Igneous Rocks
from cooling magmas
⢠The kinds of rocks you end up with (and
ultimately the kinds of structures built by the
formation of those rocks) are determined by
the chemistry of the magmas you start with
144. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
145. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
146. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
147. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
148. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
⢠Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
149. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
⢠Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
⢠Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
150. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
⢠Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
⢠Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
⢠High concentration of gases under high pressure
151. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
⢠Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
⢠Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
⢠High concentration of gases under high pressure
⢠Gases canât rise easily, so they stay trapped until near
the surface
152. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
⢠Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
⢠Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
⢠High concentration of gases under high pressure
⢠Gases canât rise easily, so they stay trapped until near
the surface
⢠As pressure is released at the surface, these
pressurized gases tend to explode
153. Felsic Magmas
⢠The âfelâ is for feldspar (made from Si, Al, O), âsiâ is for
silicates (made from Si and O)
⢠Lighter in color, lower in density than mafic minerals
⢠Continental crust is predominantly felsic material
⢠Cooler magmas, containing lots of silica (SiO2)
⢠Highly viscous (resistant to flow)
⢠High concentration of gases under high pressure
⢠Gases canât rise easily, so they stay trapped until near
the surface
⢠As pressure is released at the surface, these
pressurized gases tend to explode
â (Example: Mount St. Helens)
154. Mount Saint Helens
⢠The explosion blew off 1,300 feet of the mountain's top
and sent ash and debris more than 12 miles into the sky
covering three states - Washington, Oregon, and Idaho.
Sixty two people were dead, beautiful forests and lakes
were destroyed resulting in $3 billion worth of damage.
⢠â[At about 10:00 a.m.] in the city of Yakima, WashingtonâŚ
a black cloud covered the city and "snowed" ash. [Not] a
street light nor a neighbor's porch light could be seen. The
ash was so heavy it sank swimming pool covers and
caved in old roofs. Businesses and schools were closed
down and all normal activity⌠ceased to exist.â
From Disasters: Blowing Your Top http://www.boisestate.edu/history/
ncasner/hy210/volcano.htm
159. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
160. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
⢠Darker in color, higher in density
161. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
⢠Darker in color, higher in density
⢠Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
162. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
⢠Darker in color, higher in density
⢠Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
⢠Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances)
163. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
⢠Darker in color, higher in density
⢠Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
⢠Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances)
⢠Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2
164. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
⢠Darker in color, higher in density
⢠Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
⢠Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances)
⢠Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2
⢠Hotter magmas, so gasses stay dissolved
165. Mafic Minerals and Rocks
⢠The âmaâ is for magnesium, the âfâ for iron
(Fe--ferris); contains more metallic, heavy
elements (Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca)
⢠Darker in color, higher in density
⢠Oceanic crust is predominantly mafic
⢠Low viscosity (flow easily for long distances)
⢠Very little gas content, relatively little SiO2
⢠Hotter magmas, so gasses stay dissolved
⢠Rarely explosive
â (Example: Hawaiian volcanoes)
166. Mafic Magmas
Hawaii
2002-10-11 view northwest across coastal plain of Kilauea from West
Highcastle lava delta to Pu`u `O`o in upper right skyline
168. Intrusive vs. Extrusive
Igneous Rocks
⢠Intrusive igneous rocksâmagma cools
beneath the crust; crystals have more time to
form; harder, more erosion-resistant rocks
169. Intrusive vs. Extrusive
Igneous Rocks
⢠Intrusive igneous rocksâmagma cools
beneath the crust; crystals have more time to
form; harder, more erosion-resistant rocks
⢠Extrusive igneous rocksâmagma cools on
the surface (lava); crystals donât have time to
form good crystal faces, if it cools fast
enough, no crystals will form
(obsidian--âvolcanic glassâ)
177. Sedimentary Rocks
⢠The result of erosion, transportation, deposition, and
lithification
⢠SedimentâWeathered rock fragments that have
been transported and deposited, usually by water (or
by air or by glacial ice movements)
179. Erosion
Mechanical or Chemical
⢠Mechanical weatheringâThe physical force of a
particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic
action pounding rocks in a riverbed
180. Erosion
Mechanical or Chemical
⢠Mechanical weatheringâThe physical force of a
particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic
action pounding rocks in a riverbed
- OR -
181. Erosion
Mechanical or Chemical
⢠Mechanical weatheringâThe physical force of a
particular process acting on rocks, such as hydraulic
action pounding rocks in a riverbed
- OR -
⢠Chemical weatheringâChemical reactions, usually in
the presence of water, which operate to change the
structure of the minerals, and break them apart
â (Example: iron in the presence of water and oxygen,
incorporating those elements into its structure,
expanding as it becomes rust, breaking rock apart)
182. Transportation
⢠Distance of transport and speed of the fluid
medium determine size, roundness and
sorting of transported material
183. Transportation
⢠Distance of transport and speed of the fluid
medium determine size, roundness and
sorting of transported material
185. Deposition
⢠Deposition generally occurs in flat layers
called strata (or âbedsâ)
⢠Principle of Original Horizontality
states that material is originally
deposited in horizontal layers and
later is shifted as it is affected by
crustal movements
186. Deposition
⢠Deposition generally occurs in flat layers
called strata (or âbedsâ)
⢠Principle of Original Horizontality
states that material is originally
deposited in horizontal layers and
later is shifted as it is affected by
crustal movements
187. Deposition
⢠Deposition generally occurs in flat layers
called strata (or âbedsâ)
⢠Principle of Original Horizontality
states that material is originally
deposited in horizontal layers and
later is shifted as it is affected by
crustal movements
193. Lithification
Compaction and cementation
⢠Lithification is the process of turning
sediment into rock
âAs sediment is deposited, the addition of more
layers causes compaction
194. Lithification
Compaction and cementation
⢠Lithification is the process of turning
sediment into rock
âAs sediment is deposited, the addition of more
layers causes compaction
⢠(âtrash compactorâ)
195. Lithification
Compaction and cementation
⢠Lithification is the process of turning
sediment into rock
âAs sediment is deposited, the addition of more
layers causes compaction
⢠(âtrash compactorâ)
âDissolved minerals such as silica recrystallize in
pore spaces
196. Lithification
Compaction and cementation
⢠Lithification is the process of turning
sediment into rock
âAs sediment is deposited, the addition of more
layers causes compaction
⢠(âtrash compactorâ)
âDissolved minerals such as silica recrystallize in
pore spaces
âSediment grains are cemented together
198. Three Main Types of
Sedimentary Rocks
⢠Clastic (or detrital)
199. Three Main Types of
Sedimentary Rocks
⢠Clastic (or detrital)
â Formed from pieces of
other rocks
200. Three Main Types of
Sedimentary Rocks
⢠Clastic (or detrital)
â Formed from pieces of
other rocks
⢠Chemical
201. Three Main Types of
Sedimentary Rocks
⢠Clastic (or detrital)
â Formed from pieces of
other rocks
⢠Chemical
â Dissolved mineral
compounds that solidify
again (precipitates/
evaporites)
202. Three Main Types of
Sedimentary Rocks
⢠Clastic (or detrital)
â Formed from pieces of
other rocks
⢠Chemical
â Dissolved mineral
compounds that solidify
again (precipitates/
evaporites)
⢠Organic
203. Three Main Types of
Sedimentary Rocks
⢠Clastic (or detrital)
â Formed from pieces of
other rocks
⢠Chemical
â Dissolved mineral
compounds that solidify
again (precipitates/
evaporites)
⢠Organic
â Formed from the tissues
of living things
206. Two types of metamorphism
⢠Regional metamorphism
207. Two types of metamorphism
⢠Regional metamorphism
âOccurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
208. Two types of metamorphism
⢠Regional metamorphism
âOccurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
âCommon in subduction zones
209. Two types of metamorphism
⢠Regional metamorphism
âOccurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
âCommon in subduction zones
⢠Contact metamorphism
210. Two types of metamorphism
⢠Regional metamorphism
âOccurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
âCommon in subduction zones
⢠Contact metamorphism
âLocalized
211. Two types of metamorphism
⢠Regional metamorphism
âOccurs over 100s or 1000s of sq. miles
âCommon in subduction zones
⢠Contact metamorphism
âLocalized
âHeat and pressure of rising, intruding magmas
âbakesâ surrounding rocks
213. Parent Rock
⢠Parent rockâName given to the original rock before
the addition of heat and/or pressure
â what you start with will determine what you end up with
quartzite gneiss
214. Parent Rock
⢠Parent rockâName given to the original rock before
the addition of heat and/or pressure
â what you start with will determine what you end up with
quartzite gneiss
217. Foliation
⢠The arrangement of mineral crystals into
parallel or nearly parallel bands
âThe classification of metamorphic rocks is
generally based on the amount of foliation in the
rock