The document provides information on the structure and composition of Earth. It describes the four main layers from outermost to innermost - crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust contains different rock types and is thicker under continents. The mantle is the largest layer and has three zones. The outer core is molten and generates Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is solid and dense. Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates consisting of crust and upper mantle. The document also discusses minerals that make up rocks and the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their formation, classification, texture, and examples. Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are classified based on their mineral composition, silica content, and mode of occurrence (intrusive or extrusive). Texture refers to crystal size and shape, which depends on the cooling rate. Examples discussed include granite, gabbro, and basalt. Intrusive igneous bodies can form various structures within existing rocks, such as sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, depending on how the magma interacts with the surrounding rock layers.
Igneous rock textures are controlled by cooling rate, with rapid cooling resulting in smaller crystals and slower cooling allowing larger crystals to form. Textures provide information about cooling/crystallization rates and phase relations during crystallization. Textures describe grain features like size, shape, orientation, and boundaries, seen in hand samples or microscopically. Common textures include phaneritic (with evident crystals), porphyritic (with larger phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass), and graphic (with exsolved minerals forming angular shapes). Compositionally zoned crystals also occur.
All Igneous rock textures with examples in easy and simple way to understand and increase microscopic studies skills and the way to easily identify igneous rocks under polarized microscope.
My mission is to deliver world-class international education power point presentation through the provision of high-quality curricula, assessment and services for the IGCSE EVM.
A wide range of materials and resources is available through my Slide share to support teachers and learners in Cambridge schools. Resources suit a variety of teaching methods in different international contexts.
The content of this power point presentation is designed to encourage reflection on the limits to growth and sustainable development for IGCSE EVM.
The content of this PowerPoint is structured as a series of learning outcomes that lay out what candidates should know, understand and be able to analyze and discuss.
Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of humankind on the planet but also with the patterns of human behavior necessary to preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way. Study is linked to the areas of new thinking in environmental management, environmental economics and the quest for alternative technologies. Classroom studies and optional coursework allow candidates to obtain a local as well as a global perspective.
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter about metamorphism from the textbook Essentials of Geology. Metamorphism occurs when rocks undergo changes to their texture, mineralogy, and chemistry due to changes in temperature, pressure, and reaction with fluids. There are several processes involved, and metamorphic rocks exhibit distinctive properties based on the conditions they form under. Different metamorphic environments and intensities can produce different rock types. Index minerals are used to determine metamorphic grade.
Geology and Petrography of Sandstone of Murree formation, Kuldana formation and Abbottabad formation Nakial and Dandli section sub Himalayas district Kotli, Azad Jammu Kashmir, Pakistan.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their formation, classification, texture, and examples. Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are classified based on their mineral composition, silica content, and mode of occurrence (intrusive or extrusive). Texture refers to crystal size and shape, which depends on the cooling rate. Examples discussed include granite, gabbro, and basalt. Intrusive igneous bodies can form various structures within existing rocks, such as sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, depending on how the magma interacts with the surrounding rock layers.
Igneous rock textures are controlled by cooling rate, with rapid cooling resulting in smaller crystals and slower cooling allowing larger crystals to form. Textures provide information about cooling/crystallization rates and phase relations during crystallization. Textures describe grain features like size, shape, orientation, and boundaries, seen in hand samples or microscopically. Common textures include phaneritic (with evident crystals), porphyritic (with larger phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass), and graphic (with exsolved minerals forming angular shapes). Compositionally zoned crystals also occur.
All Igneous rock textures with examples in easy and simple way to understand and increase microscopic studies skills and the way to easily identify igneous rocks under polarized microscope.
My mission is to deliver world-class international education power point presentation through the provision of high-quality curricula, assessment and services for the IGCSE EVM.
A wide range of materials and resources is available through my Slide share to support teachers and learners in Cambridge schools. Resources suit a variety of teaching methods in different international contexts.
The content of this power point presentation is designed to encourage reflection on the limits to growth and sustainable development for IGCSE EVM.
The content of this PowerPoint is structured as a series of learning outcomes that lay out what candidates should know, understand and be able to analyze and discuss.
Environmental Management is concerned not only with the impact of humankind on the planet but also with the patterns of human behavior necessary to preserve and manage the environment in a self-sustaining way. Study is linked to the areas of new thinking in environmental management, environmental economics and the quest for alternative technologies. Classroom studies and optional coursework allow candidates to obtain a local as well as a global perspective.
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter about metamorphism from the textbook Essentials of Geology. Metamorphism occurs when rocks undergo changes to their texture, mineralogy, and chemistry due to changes in temperature, pressure, and reaction with fluids. There are several processes involved, and metamorphic rocks exhibit distinctive properties based on the conditions they form under. Different metamorphic environments and intensities can produce different rock types. Index minerals are used to determine metamorphic grade.
Geology and Petrography of Sandstone of Murree formation, Kuldana formation and Abbottabad formation Nakial and Dandli section sub Himalayas district Kotli, Azad Jammu Kashmir, Pakistan.
igneous rocks formation and their classificationMazhar Ali
This document provides an introduction and overview of igneous rocks. It defines igneous rocks as those formed by the solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks are classified based on whether they solidified below ground as intrusive rocks or above ground as extrusive rocks. Some common igneous rocks are described, including granite, gabbro, basalt, dolerite, and diorite. Their typical compositions and properties are outlined.
Petrology is the study of rocks and their composition, texture, and structure. There are three main types of rocks: igneous rocks, which form from cooling magma; metamorphic rocks, which form from existing rocks undergoing changes due to heat, pressure, and chemical reactions; and sedimentary rocks, which form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Igneous rocks can be categorized as extrusive or intrusive, depending on where they solidify. Common igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and syenite. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering of existing rocks and the deposition and lithification of sediments. Texture, minerals, and formation processes help classify and identify different
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
This document discusses petrology, which is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. It describes the three main classes of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and their key characteristics. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, either deep underground as plutonic rocks or at the surface as volcanic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the lithification of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids in the Earth's crust.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Rocks have different chemical and physical properties that make them useful in our everyday lives. We use rocks for construction, fuel, art, and other purposes. Rocks are classified into three main groups based on their method of formation: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of molten material from within the Earth. Their texture, mineral composition, and other features provide clues to how quickly or slowly they cooled.
The document provides an overview of geology and various geological concepts through definitions and explanations. It discusses the structure of the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. It then covers plate tectonics, the geological time scale, minerals, rocks including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, faults, folds, coal formation and some key geological terms. Diagrams and images are provided to illustrate geological features and concepts.
SOME OF THE MOST COMMON TEXTURES AND INTERGROWTHS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS, WHICH YOU SHOULD KNOW AS A PETROLOGIST.
ALSO, YOU WILL FIND PICTURES OF THE DESCRIBED CONTENT BOTH PETRO SECTION ALONG WITH THIN SECTION.
The document discusses minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic substances with distinct properties based on their atomic structure. There are over 2000 known minerals that form six major rock-forming groups. Rocks are aggregates of minerals and are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through deposition and lithification of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and stress. The rock cycle describes how rocks continuously transform between these types through geological processes.
The document discusses how geologists date rocks using relative and absolute dating methods. It explains that relative dating involves determining rock layers' ages based on the principle of superposition, where older rocks are on the bottom and younger on top. Absolute dating uses radiometric dating to measure radioactive isotopes' decay to determine a sample's precise age. The document provides examples of the oldest dated rocks on Earth and discusses the concept of uniformitarianism, that current geologic processes can explain past events.
The document discusses petrology and igneous rocks. It defines petrology as the branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks, including their formation, classification, properties and structures. It describes igneous rocks as those formed from molten material (magma or lava) that has cooled and crystallized. Igneous rocks are divided into three types based on where they form - volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic rocks. Texture in igneous rocks is determined by the size, shape and arrangement of mineral constituents, and can be described based on crystallization, granularity, and fabric.
This document provides an introduction to petrology, including definitions and classifications of different rock types. It discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous rocks formed from cooling magma or lava, sedimentary rocks formed from weathered materials, and metamorphic rocks formed from changes to pre-existing rocks. It describes common textures and structures seen in each rock type, such as vesicular, columnar, and gneiss textures. Finally, it discusses the importance of petrology for civil engineering applications by providing details on rock properties relevant to strength and durability.
This document provides an overview of minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle presented by a student from Suez University. It discusses the main topics of minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Specifically, it describes the composition and properties of minerals, how the three main rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes, and provides examples of common rock types for each category. The document aims to educate the reader on basic concepts in petrology and the classification of earth materials.
This document provides an overview of petrology, the geological classification of rocks, and their structures and textures. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. The document also outlines common structures within each rock type, such as vesicles in igneous rocks, stratification in sedimentary rocks, and foliation in metamorphic rocks. Finally, it discusses the importance of petrology for civil
Rocks found in India are classified into three broad categories, viz. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Their occurrences vary from widespread stretches to small patches or pockets throughout the country. The distribution of various rocks are to be studied in Indian geography, Indian Geology, Economic Geography. mining geology, mineral exploration and applied geology in particular.
Igneous rock, Engineering Geology, Semester IV GTUketgold
This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification. It discusses igneous rocks being divided into plutonic (coarse-grained intrusive), volcanic (extrusive), and hypabyssal rocks based on cooling conditions. Classification is also based on mineralogy and chemistry, notably the silica content, which divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic compositions. Textural properties like grain size, mineral proportions, and cooling structures are also used to identify and categorize different igneous rock types. Common examples of each rock class are provided.
Rocks are naturally occurring solid mixtures of minerals or organic matter. They are classified based on how they form, their composition, and texture. Rocks change over time through the rock cycle. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and deformation.
This document discusses various approaches to classifying igneous rocks. It describes classifications based on fabric (grain size, presence of glass), field relations (intrusive vs extrusive), mineralogical and modal compositions, and the 1973 IUGS modal classification system. It also addresses issues with using rock analyses to determine original magma compositions, noting that degassing can cause the volatile content of erupted rocks to be lower than the magma. Analyzing volatile content in melt inclusions in phenocrysts is presented as a way to determine a rock's pre-eruption magmatic volatile contents more accurately.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
This document summarizes key concepts about igneous rocks and magma from Chapter 4 of Essentials of Geology 3rd Edition. Magma forms from the partial melting of rocks in the crust and upper mantle due to processes like pressure release, volatile addition, and heat transfer. As magma cools, igneous rocks form with different textures and compositions depending on the cooling environment. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface. Magma composition is influenced by the source rock and processes like fractional crystallization during cooling.
Caves form through natural processes and come in different types. Solution caves are the most common, forming in limestone through erosion from rainwater. Other cave types include lava tubes from volcanic activity, sea caves from wave erosion, and glacier caves from melting ice. Caves provide habitat for unique animals adapted to live underground, and some caves hold records for being the longest, deepest, or largest.
igneous rocks formation and their classificationMazhar Ali
This document provides an introduction and overview of igneous rocks. It defines igneous rocks as those formed by the solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rocks are classified based on whether they solidified below ground as intrusive rocks or above ground as extrusive rocks. Some common igneous rocks are described, including granite, gabbro, basalt, dolerite, and diorite. Their typical compositions and properties are outlined.
Petrology is the study of rocks and their composition, texture, and structure. There are three main types of rocks: igneous rocks, which form from cooling magma; metamorphic rocks, which form from existing rocks undergoing changes due to heat, pressure, and chemical reactions; and sedimentary rocks, which form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Igneous rocks can be categorized as extrusive or intrusive, depending on where they solidify. Common igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and syenite. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering of existing rocks and the deposition and lithification of sediments. Texture, minerals, and formation processes help classify and identify different
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
This document discusses petrology, which is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form. It describes the three main classes of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and their key characteristics. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, either deep underground as plutonic rocks or at the surface as volcanic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the lithification of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids in the Earth's crust.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Rocks have different chemical and physical properties that make them useful in our everyday lives. We use rocks for construction, fuel, art, and other purposes. Rocks are classified into three main groups based on their method of formation: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of molten material from within the Earth. Their texture, mineral composition, and other features provide clues to how quickly or slowly they cooled.
The document provides an overview of geology and various geological concepts through definitions and explanations. It discusses the structure of the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. It then covers plate tectonics, the geological time scale, minerals, rocks including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, faults, folds, coal formation and some key geological terms. Diagrams and images are provided to illustrate geological features and concepts.
SOME OF THE MOST COMMON TEXTURES AND INTERGROWTHS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS, WHICH YOU SHOULD KNOW AS A PETROLOGIST.
ALSO, YOU WILL FIND PICTURES OF THE DESCRIBED CONTENT BOTH PETRO SECTION ALONG WITH THIN SECTION.
The document discusses minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic substances with distinct properties based on their atomic structure. There are over 2000 known minerals that form six major rock-forming groups. Rocks are aggregates of minerals and are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through deposition and lithification of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and stress. The rock cycle describes how rocks continuously transform between these types through geological processes.
The document discusses how geologists date rocks using relative and absolute dating methods. It explains that relative dating involves determining rock layers' ages based on the principle of superposition, where older rocks are on the bottom and younger on top. Absolute dating uses radiometric dating to measure radioactive isotopes' decay to determine a sample's precise age. The document provides examples of the oldest dated rocks on Earth and discusses the concept of uniformitarianism, that current geologic processes can explain past events.
The document discusses petrology and igneous rocks. It defines petrology as the branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks, including their formation, classification, properties and structures. It describes igneous rocks as those formed from molten material (magma or lava) that has cooled and crystallized. Igneous rocks are divided into three types based on where they form - volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic rocks. Texture in igneous rocks is determined by the size, shape and arrangement of mineral constituents, and can be described based on crystallization, granularity, and fabric.
This document provides an introduction to petrology, including definitions and classifications of different rock types. It discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous rocks formed from cooling magma or lava, sedimentary rocks formed from weathered materials, and metamorphic rocks formed from changes to pre-existing rocks. It describes common textures and structures seen in each rock type, such as vesicular, columnar, and gneiss textures. Finally, it discusses the importance of petrology for civil engineering applications by providing details on rock properties relevant to strength and durability.
This document provides an overview of minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle presented by a student from Suez University. It discusses the main topics of minerals, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Specifically, it describes the composition and properties of minerals, how the three main rock types are formed through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes, and provides examples of common rock types for each category. The document aims to educate the reader on basic concepts in petrology and the classification of earth materials.
This document provides an overview of petrology, the geological classification of rocks, and their structures and textures. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. The document also outlines common structures within each rock type, such as vesicles in igneous rocks, stratification in sedimentary rocks, and foliation in metamorphic rocks. Finally, it discusses the importance of petrology for civil
Rocks found in India are classified into three broad categories, viz. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Their occurrences vary from widespread stretches to small patches or pockets throughout the country. The distribution of various rocks are to be studied in Indian geography, Indian Geology, Economic Geography. mining geology, mineral exploration and applied geology in particular.
Igneous rock, Engineering Geology, Semester IV GTUketgold
This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification. It discusses igneous rocks being divided into plutonic (coarse-grained intrusive), volcanic (extrusive), and hypabyssal rocks based on cooling conditions. Classification is also based on mineralogy and chemistry, notably the silica content, which divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic compositions. Textural properties like grain size, mineral proportions, and cooling structures are also used to identify and categorize different igneous rock types. Common examples of each rock class are provided.
Rocks are naturally occurring solid mixtures of minerals or organic matter. They are classified based on how they form, their composition, and texture. Rocks change over time through the rock cycle. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and deformation.
This document discusses various approaches to classifying igneous rocks. It describes classifications based on fabric (grain size, presence of glass), field relations (intrusive vs extrusive), mineralogical and modal compositions, and the 1973 IUGS modal classification system. It also addresses issues with using rock analyses to determine original magma compositions, noting that degassing can cause the volatile content of erupted rocks to be lower than the magma. Analyzing volatile content in melt inclusions in phenocrysts is presented as a way to determine a rock's pre-eruption magmatic volatile contents more accurately.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
This document summarizes key concepts about igneous rocks and magma from Chapter 4 of Essentials of Geology 3rd Edition. Magma forms from the partial melting of rocks in the crust and upper mantle due to processes like pressure release, volatile addition, and heat transfer. As magma cools, igneous rocks form with different textures and compositions depending on the cooling environment. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface. Magma composition is influenced by the source rock and processes like fractional crystallization during cooling.
Caves form through natural processes and come in different types. Solution caves are the most common, forming in limestone through erosion from rainwater. Other cave types include lava tubes from volcanic activity, sea caves from wave erosion, and glacier caves from melting ice. Caves provide habitat for unique animals adapted to live underground, and some caves hold records for being the longest, deepest, or largest.
The document summarizes changes in the American South from early European settlement through the late 20th century. It describes how the South was initially dominated by agriculture, slavery, and racial segregation laws. Over time, the region became more urbanized and industrialized as the agricultural economy declined. Manufacturing and the service sector grew. Civil rights reforms and federal interventions helped dismantle legalized racial segregation and discrimination. By the late 20th century, the South had become more culturally and economically integrated into the rest of the nation.
The document discusses geography and testing people's knowledge of locations around the world. It includes multiple choice questions about where places like Iraq, Sudan, and New York are located. It also asks about speaking other languages, corresponding with people in other countries, and converting between time zones. The document suggests that young Americans are unprepared for an increasingly globalized world due to weaknesses in geographic knowledge.
The document discusses wikis and their benefits for collaboration and organization. Wikis allow any user to easily edit and update content. They simplify website creation by automatically generating pages and links. Many wikis also function as collaborative communities where multiple users can contribute and edit content. Wikis help organize information through internal linking of pages and provide version histories of document changes.
This document provides an overview of a physical geography course. It outlines the course objectives, required materials, grading scale, assignments including exams, quizzes, presentations and extra credit opportunities. The professor provides contact information and notes that the schedule and topics are tentative and may be subject to change. Students are expected to learn about the basic elements of geography including climate, landforms, water, soils and plants and animals and their global patterns of distribution.
The document provides an overview of the structure and composition of Earth, including its core, mantle, crust, and lithosphere. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. It also covers plate tectonics, minerals, landforms, and the methods used to study Earth's geomorphology across different scales.
Rocks are divided into three main types based on their origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either underground (intrusive/plutonic rocks like granite) or on the surface (extrusive/volcanic rocks like rhyolite and basalt). Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks via heat, pressure, and chemical reactions. Rocks continuously cycle between these three types through geological processes like erosion, deposition, and tectonic activity.
Core Subject: Earth and Life Science
II. Earth Materials and Processes
A. Minerals and Rocks
The learners
demonstrate an
understanding of:
1. the three main categories of rocks
2. the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
The learners:
1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties
2. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
This document provides an overview of igneous rocks and their formation. It discusses that igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava. The cooling rate affects crystal size - slower cooling produces larger crystals and faster cooling produces smaller crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have coarse grains, while extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine grains. Texture is determined by crystal size and arrangements. Examples of textures discussed are phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy and pyroclastic.
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It discusses how Earth's early molten stage led to differentiation of the crust. It also explains that minerals have unique crystalline structures while rocks are aggregates of minerals. The main rock types - igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic - are formed by different geological processes. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through compaction and cementation, and metamorphic rocks form through heat and pressure altering existing rocks.
Rocks can be categorized into three main types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - based on their formation process. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. These three rock types are interrelated through the rock cycle, where one rock type can transform into another through various geological processes over long periods of time. Studying rocks provides insight into Earth's systems and geological processes.
This document discusses the formation of rocks from minerals and their classification into three main groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes how igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma, either deep underground or at the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks form from the compression of sediments and can contain fossils. Metamorphic rocks are formed from the alteration of existing igneous and sedimentary rocks through heat and pressure in the Earth. The document provides examples of common rock types in each category and their distinguishing features.
The document describes the different layers that make up the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of each layer, such as the crust being the outermost solid layer and the inner core being made of solid iron and nickel. It also discusses the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, and the types of rocks that make up the different layers, such as basalt in the crust and iron and nickel in the outer core.
this is the earth ndzkx kdekfnfn dkfkfnfnfic dkdkfnfnfif jdjdjdfbfjfkcj dndkfkffjfbxn ddkfjfbfbdkdcj dkdkfjfngkccjcb dkdkdbxbxkxxb. Ffjfxkfnf krkkcck dkkdck ddkfkckfbfnf, kddkdjng cthus xmf to act lys in school ako kahit mali music maoy akong ka ba talaga ate ka ba talaga ate ka ba talaga ate ka ba talaga ate ka ba talaga sa school ko sa panhong i have my phone died but you don't know where to get your car is the part about being so sweet to you just don't like to see u soon. love songs on delivery is approximately one day you have you ever had the strangest I know it means to get to si ate pud ko ana niya sa sululaton the world but you can speak with how you been in ana siya nga mas maganda ako ng litmatch. laman ko sa panhong i don't have the best I have a nice day today with a smile is amazing ń I was gonna say it back and I was in your life to start with pain in school nga di na makaon to today but I'm going to another day another girl or what I was like what the future holds. but he said it would have to end up with how is the speaker and quiz on delivery for the philippines and quiz on you and 4 1 hanggang ngayon di ko need to take a shower then go back and I hope so too baby and I'm sorry to be my baby is our responsibility for you and 4 1 hanggang ngayon di ko need to be okay with my family is our responsibility for you will be changed. Kwdkccb fkffkckfnfoc kfkd
Soil Forming Rocks and Minerals ClassificationDINESH KUMAR
This document discusses the classification of rocks and minerals. It describes three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma, sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from alterations to existing rocks by heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. Within each rock type are various sub-classifications. The document also examines the classification of important rock-forming minerals and describes their structures, weathering properties, and physical characteristics.
The document discusses the composition and formation of rocks and minerals that make up the Earth's crust. It describes three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they are formed from the cooling of magma, consolidation of sediments, and alteration of existing rocks respectively. It also discusses the composition and properties of common minerals that form the building blocks of rocks.
This document defines rocks and describes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It explains that rocks are divided based on how they were formed and can change between types through geological processes. The rock cycle diagram shows how rocks continuously change between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic forms over millions of years through melting, cooling, burial and erosion.
The document discusses the formation of different types of rocks through various geological processes. It describes how igneous rocks form from cooling magma either below (intrusive) or above (extrusive) the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering, erosion, deposition and lithification of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to heat and pressure, such as in subduction zones or near magma intrusions. The key driving forces behind the continuous rock cycle are the Earth's internal heat and convection currents, along with processes at the surface influenced by the sun such as weathering.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including how they are formed from the cooling of magma and lava, how they are classified based on mineral size and composition, and the key properties of different types of igneous rocks such as ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, and felsic rocks. It also discusses the rock cycle and defines important terms.
This document discusses different types of rocks and how they form. It describes the three major rock types as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure changing other rocks, and sedimentary rocks form from sediments. The document then discusses the rock cycle, how rocks are transformed between types through geological processes. It provides details on the formation of different igneous rock textures based on cooling rates and crystal sizes. Various igneous rock classifications including their mineralogy and chemistry are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of Earth's history and geology. It explains that Earth is geologically active with huge amounts of energy acting on its surface and interior. Observable evidence today can provide information about past processes and events. It then describes various aspects of Earth's structure like the crust, mantle, core and tectonic plates. It discusses geological processes like erosion, sedimentation, and the rock cycle. It also outlines plate tectonics and features at plate boundaries like divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Key terms are defined like seismic, fossil, and stratigraphy. The conclusion notes that rather than being serene, Earth is a dynamic world that is constantly changing.
The document discusses the interior structure of the Earth. It is composed of several concentric layers, with the crust being the outermost layer. Below the crust is the mantle, which extends to a depth of 2,900 km. The innermost layer is the core, with a radius of around 3,500 km. The Earth's crust is made up of various rock types, including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks undergo changes in a cyclic process called the rock cycle, where they can transform from one type to another over time through processes like cooling of magma, weathering and erosion, deposition, and changes in pressure and temperature.
G 7 geo ch-2 inside our earth full chapter week-2Preeti Pachauri
The document provides information about rocks and the interior of the Earth. It discusses three key topics:
1) The interior of the Earth is composed of layers, including the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is made up of two types - continental and oceanic.
2) There are three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to other rock types.
3) Rocks undergo the rock cycle as they are broken down, transformed by heat and pressure, and form new types of rocks
Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies. They are divided into extrusive and intrusive rocks based on where they solidify. Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock, which depends on the cooling rate - slower cooling produces larger grains. Igneous rock textures include phaneric, aphanitic, holocrystalline, and glassy. Structures within igneous rocks include vesicles from trapped gas, xenoliths of older rocks, columnar joints, and large mineral grains in pegmatites.
The document outlines learning outcomes for a lesson on rock types:
a) Identify and describe the three basic rock types;
b) Describe how each rock type forms and define their environments;
c) Describe how rocks are transformed through the rock cycle;
d) Identify and describe geologic processes in the rock cycle.
The document discusses the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) created by the United Nations in 2015. The 17 goals aim to eliminate poverty, hunger, disease, and climate change by 2030. Progress has already been made in reducing poverty, hunger, and disease in recent decades. The UNDP works with countries around the world to achieve the ambitious goals by 2030.
This document is the illustrated edition of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights published by the United Nations in several languages. It was created through a partnership between artist Yacine Ait Kaci, the UN Regional Information Centre, and the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. The drawings in the edition are copyrighted but the text can be reproduced and translated freely provided the UN emblem is removed and proper credits are included.
This document discusses a lecture given by Richard H. Helmholz on the topic of Magna Carta and the law of nature. The lecture explores possible connections between Magna Carta, which was enacted in 1215, and principles of natural law as understood at that time and for centuries afterward. While recent scholarship has been skeptical of portraying Magna Carta as guaranteeing broad human rights or natural law, the lecture examines whether the enactment of Magna Carta could be connected to contemporary understandings of justice and natural law. The lecture acknowledges limitations in proving conclusions definitively but aims to reasonably infer connections from evidence in Magna Carta's clauses based on natural law perspectives current at the time, rather than an
James Madison proposed the Bill of Rights in response to calls for more protections of basic liberties in the newly ratified Constitution. The first ten amendments were ratified in 1791 and guarantee freedoms like speech, religion, press, trial rights, search and seizure protections, and the right to bear arms. The Bill of Rights plays a central role in American law and government and protects fundamental rights and values of the nation.
Feudal strength! henry ii and the struggle for royal control inlschmidt1170
Henry II faced the challenge of reasserting royal authority over powerful feudal barons who had gained influence and control over lands during the chaotic reign of King Stephen. Henry worked to curb the barons' power by destroying unauthorized castles and establishing a centralized system of common law with the crown at its head. Through military prowess and administrative reforms, Henry was largely successful in reclaiming royal power, expanding the authority of the monarchy in legal matters and its relationship with the church. However, the difficulties of controlling a vast feudal empire remained immense for even a skilled ruler like Henry.
The Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the US government, known as Congress, which is made up of the Senate and House of Representatives. It outlines the composition and election process for both chambers, as well as their powers and responsibilities. These include the ability to create laws, approve the federal budget, declare war, and impeach and remove the president or other federal officials from office. The Constitution also establishes the basic framework for how legislation is passed and how the executive branch, through the president, can veto bills.
The document summarizes the Bill of Rights, which was ratified on December 15, 1791. It outlines the first ten amendments to the US Constitution, which aim to protect individual liberties and limit the powers of the federal government. The amendments establish protections for freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, gun ownership, due process, fair trials, and prohibit cruel and unusual punishment. They also reserve powers not delegated to the federal government to the states and people.
Denis haley catherine douglas geneaology 1793 to 1989lschmidt1170
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
This document lists various human features including states, provinces, cities, water features like rivers and lakes, and landforms found in Eastern North America. It includes 24 US states and provinces and over 50 cities located within them. The water features section lists 9 rivers, 5 bays/other bodies of water, and 5 Great Lakes. The landforms section names 7 islands and 5 mountain ranges as well as 3 peninsulas in the region.
This document provides information about a 14-week online physical geography course taught by Professor Lisa Schmidt. The course will cover basic elements of geography including climate, landforms, water, soils, plants and animals. Students will study these topics and their global patterns. Assignments include weekly discussions, chapter quizzes, map quizzes and four exams. The course aims to give students an understanding of the earth's physical systems and human relationships with the environment.
This document provides information for a geography lab course including:
- Details about the instructor, their contact information, office hours and the class schedule.
- Prerequisites, required textbooks and additional materials needed for the course.
- The student learning outcomes and course objectives focused on understanding physical geography concepts.
- Expectations for labs, exams, grading criteria and policies on absences, tardiness, disruptions and academic honesty.
- Resources available to support student success and an overview of what geography is as a field of study.
This document provides an overview and syllabus for a physical geography course. It outlines that students will learn about the basic elements of geography, including climate, landforms, water, soils, plants and animals. They will examine the relationships between these elements and their worldwide distribution patterns. The course will cover four environmental spheres - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. Students will take exams, quizzes on textbook chapters and maps, and do a presentation on a physical geography topic. The syllabus details course policies on grading, attendance and academic honesty.
This document provides an overview of a physical geography course. It outlines the course objectives which are to introduce students to basic concepts in physical geography including the four environmental spheres of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It details required textbooks, exams, quizzes, assignments, and presentations for the course. Students are expected to demonstrate understanding of geographic concepts and the distribution of natural phenomena through map studies. The syllabus emphasizes academic honesty and provides contact information for the professor.
1. Title Page Photo
“Come forth into the light of things, Let
Nature be your teacher.”
—William Wordsworth
Vocabulary
• asthenosphere (p. 388) • mineral (p. 389)
• basalt (p. 392) • Mohoroviˇci´c discontinuity (Moho)
• contact metamorphism (p. 398) • (p. 387)
• crust (p. 387) • outcrop (p. 391)
• external (geomorphic) processes • outer core (p. 388)
• (p. 404) • plutonic (intrusive) igneous rock
• geomorphology (p. 402) • (p. 392)
• granite (p. 392) • pyroclastics (p. 391)
• igneous rock (p. 391) • relief (p. 403)
• inner core (p. 388) • rock (p. 391)
• internal (geomorphic) processes • rock cycle (p. 400)
• (p. 404) • sedimentary rock (p. 394)
• landform (p. 402) • silicate (silicate minerals) (p. 389)
• lava (p. 391) • strata (p. 396)
• lithosphere (p. 388) • topography (p. 401)
• magma (p. 391) • uniformitarianism (p. 404)
• mantle (p. 388) • volcanic (extrusive) igneous rock
• metamorphic rock (p. 398) • (p. 392)
The Structure of Earth
• Humans have not penetrated more than one-
thousandth of Earth radius.
• Have inferential knowledge of interior, through
monitoring shock waves transmitted through
Earth from earthquakes or from human-made
explosions.
– Knowledge is incomplete.
– Deduced that it has a heavy inner core surrounded by
three concentric layers of various composition and
density.
• Four regions are the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner
core
1
2. The Structure of Earth
• Introduction
– Core
• Inner core
• Outer core
– Mantle
– Crust
– Fig. 13-1
The Crust
• Crust—outermost solid layer
of Earth, consisting of broad
mixture of rock types.
– On average, crust three times as
thick under continents as under
ocean.
– Makes up less than 1 percent of
Earth’s volume.
– Mohorovičić discontinuity
(Moho)—the boundary between
Earth’s crust and mantle.
• Thought to be a narrow zone with
significant change in mineral
composition.
The Mantle
• The Mantle is that portion of Earth
beneath the crust and surrounding
the outer core, about to depth of
2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles).
– Largest volume of all four shells.
– Scientists believe three zones within
mantle: lithosphere, asthenosphere,
mesosphere.
• Lithosphere—the uppermost zone of
mantle and the crust together. (Also,
tectonic plates consisting of the crust and
upper rigid mantle. Sometimes used as a
general term for the entire solid Earth.)
• Asthenosphere—plastic layer of the
upper mantle that underlies the
lithosphere. Its rock is very hot and
therefore weak and easily deformed.
2
3. The Inner and Outer Core
• Outer core—the (molten) liquid
shell beneath the mantle that
encloses Earth’s inner core.
– Responsible for generating Earth’s
magnetic field.
– The north magnetic pole migrates.
– The magnetic field also weakens
and undergoes magnetic reversals
at regular intervals.
• Inner core—the supposedly solid,
dense, innermost portion of Earth,
believed to consist largely of
iron/nickel or iron/silicate.
– Understanding of crust and upper
mantle has fundamentally changed
in last three decades.
Plate Tectonics and the Structure
of Earth
• Continental drift—theory
that proposes that the
present continents were
originally connected as one
or two large landmasses that
have broken up and literally
drifted apart over the last
several million years.
• Plate tectonics—a coherent
theory of massive crustal
rearrangement based on the
movement of continent-sized
lithospheric plates.
Composition of Earth
• Mineral—a naturally
formed inorganic solid
substance that has an
unvarying chemical
composition and
characteristic crystal
structure.
• About 4,400 identified,
with new types being
Fig. 13-3. Quartz crystal, pure silica (SiO2)
found each year.
3
4. Minerals
• In order for a substance
to be considered a
mineral it must be
1. Solid
2. Naturally found in nature
3. Inorganic
4. Possess a specific
chemical composition
5. Contain atoms arranged in
a regular pattern to form Fig. 13-4. Iron pyrite
solid crystals. crystals(FeS2)
Minerals
• Seven principal categories of rock-forming minerals (on
basis of chemical properties and internal structure).
1. Silicates—a category of minerals composed of silicon and
oxygen combined with another element or elements.
• Largest and most important group; most are hard and durable.
2. Oxides—a category of minerals composed of oxygen combined
with another element.
• Quartz has chemical composition of oxide, but classified as silicate
because of its internal structure.
3. Sulfides—a category of minerals composed of sulfur, combined
with another element or elements.
• Includes many of the most important ore minerals.
Minerals
4. Sulfates—a category of minerals composed of
sulfur and oxygen, combined with another
element or elements.
– Calcium is the principal combining element.
5. Carbonates—mineral that is a carbonate
compound of calcium or magnesium.
6. Halides—a category of minerals that is notably
salty.
– Least widespread.
7. Native elements—those minerals that aren’t
combined chemically with others, but appearing
as discrete elements (e.g., gold and silver).
4
5. Rocks
• Rock—solid material
composed of
aggregated mineral
particles (in
lithosphere).
• Outcrop—surface
exposure of bedrock.
• Bedrock—buried
layer of residual rock
that has not
experienced erosion.
– Three types of rocks
• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic
- Fig. 13-6
Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rock—rock
formed by solidification of
molten magma.
– Many kinds, but principal
shared trait is crystalline
structure.
• Magma—molten material
in Earth’s interior.
• Pyroclastics – rocks
formed from the “welding”
together of tiny pieces of
volcanic rock.
5
6. Igneous Rocks
• Classification of igneous rocks based on
mineral composition and texture.
– Quantity of silica is one of the most important
variables.
• Felsic—contain large portions of light-colored
silicate minerals.
– Quartz and feldspar
• Mafic—contain low amounts of silicate.
– Contain a large portion of dark-colored silicate minerals
such as olivine and pyroxene.
Igneous Rocks
• Plutonic (Intrusive) Rocks—rocks that cool and solidify
beneath Earth’s surface (may be pushed up to surface or
exposed through erosion).
– Granite is most common and well known.
– Large mineral crystals because of slow rate of cooling.
• Volcanic (Extrusive) Rocks—molten rock ejected onto
Earth’s surface, solidifying quickly in the open air.
– Basalt is most common.
– Also obsidian, tuff, and pumice.
• Small mineral crystals because of rapid rate of cooling.
– Fig. 13-8a. Sylvan Lake, Black Hills, SD
Granite
6
7. – Volcanic (Extrusive) Rocks
• Small mineral structure (fine-grained)
• Dark-colored, generally (mafic igneous rock)
• Basalt most common (extensive seafloor bedrock)
– Fig. 13-17
– Fig. 13-19. Snake River Canyon, Idaho.
Basalt
Sedimentary Rocks
• Sediment—small particles of rock
debris or organic material
deposited by water, wind, or ice.
• Sedimentary rock—rock formed
of sediment that is consolidated by
the combination of pressure and
cementation.
– During sedimentation, materials
sorted roughly by size (the finer
particles carried farther than heavier
particles).
• Strata (plural; stratum, singular)—
distinct layers of sediment.
– Results in parallel structure
(stratification), with layers varying in
thickness and composition.
7
8. Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
– Composed of fragments of preexisting rocks.
• AKA clastic or detrital
• For example, shale and sandstone.
• When sedimentary rock is composed of rounded
particles, it is called conglomerate.
Sedimentary Rocks
• Chemical and Organic Sedimentary Rock
– Chemically accumulated: precipitation of
soluble materials or chemical reactions.
• For example, calcium carbonate and limestone.
– Organically accumulated: remains of dead
plants or animals.
• For example, coal and limestone.
– Nearly horizontal layers of limestone and shale
Limestone
– Fig. 13-11
8
10. – Chemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks
• Chemical Precipitation (Limestone most common result)
• Compaction of organic sediments (e.g., limestone and coal
formations)
– Fig. 13-11. (a) Layers of limestone and shale. (b) Limestone with fossil mollusks.
– Relative Abundance of Sedimentary Rock Types
– Fig. 13-14
Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rock—rock that was originally something
else (igneous or sedimentary) but has been drastically
changed by massive forces of heat and/or pressure
working on it from within Earth.
– Contact metamorphism
• When magma comes in contact with surrounding rocks.
– Regional metamorphism
• Large volumes of rock are subject to heat and pressure.
• Process recrystallizes and rearranges mineral components.
• Foliation—Prominent alignment of minerals.
• Some predictability, such as limestone metamorphized becomes
marble.
• Sometimes metamorphosis so great, can’t determine nature of
original rock.
• Most common are schist and gneiss.
10
12. – Common Metamorphic
Rocks and Their
Counterparts
• Marble limestone
• Quartzite sandstone
• Slate Shale
Metamorphic rocks with
multiple counterparts:
• Gneiss
• Schist
– Slate, Northampton County, PA
(Source: Richard A. Crooker)
The Rock Cycle
• There is an
ongoing
recycling of
lithographic
material via
the rock
cycle
(Figure 13-
18 on page
400).
Continental and Ocean Floor
Rocks
• Lithosphere has very uneven
distribution of sedimentary,
igneous, and metamorphic
rocks.
– Sedimentary rocks dominant
on surface of Earth, both in
United States and rest of
world.
– This dominance, however, is
only on surface, as
sedimentary cover is not thick.
• Averages less than 2.4
kilometers (1.5 miles).
• Assume that igneous make
up the bulk of the crust, but
metamorphic rocks might
because of enormous
pressures at play beneath
crustal surface.
12
13. Continental and Ocean Floor
Rocks
• Continental crust is primarily made up of
silica and aluminum.
– Sial for short.
– 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter
Continental and Ocean Floor
Rocks
• Oceanic crust is primarily made up of silica
and magnesium.
– Sima for short.
– 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter.
Continental and Ocean Floor
Rocks
• Isostasy—maintenance of the hydrostatic
equilibrium of Earth’s crust.
– Basically, where material is added, crust will sink, but
it will rise when material is removed.
– Variety of causes result in isostatic reactions.
• For example, deposition of sediment or accumulation of
glacial ice vs. erosion as ice sheet melts or large body of
water drains.
13
14. The Study of Landforms
• Focus on topography—the surface
configuration of Earth.
• Landform—an individual topographic feature.
• Geomorphology—the study of the
characteristics, origin, and development of
landforms.
• Focusing just on land surfaces, study must
encompass 150 million square kilometers (58
million square miles) scattered over seven
continents and innumerable islands.
The Study of Landforms
• Such study is complex endeavor and requires
organized approach, including examining following four
elements.
1. Structure—nature, arrangement, and orientation of the
materials in feature being studied.
• Geologic underpinning of landform.
2. Process—the actions that have combined to produce the
landform.
• Encompasses interaction of forces such as geologic, hydrologic,
atmospheric and biotic.
3. Slope—fundamental aspect of shape for any landform.
4. Drainage—refers to movement of water (from rainfall and
snowmelt).
The Study of Landforms
• After identifying the previous four basic
elements, geographer can analyze topography.
• Fundamental questions of geographic inquiry:
1. What? (the form of features)
2. Where? (the distribution and pattern of landform
assemblage)
3. Why? (an explanation of origin and development)
4. So what? (the significance of the topography in
relationship to other elements of environment and to
human life and activities)
14
15. The Study of Landforms
• Some Critical Concepts
– Basic Terms
• Relief—the difference in elevation between the
highest and lowest points in an area (e.g., the
vertical variation from mountaintop to valley
bottom).
Internal and External Geomorphic
Processes
• Variety of topography reflects complexity of
interactions between process and structure.
– Internal Processes
• Internal processes operate within Earth, drawing energy from
heat.
• In general, they are building forces, increasing relief of land
surface.
– External Processes
• External processes operate at base of atmosphere
(subaerial), drawing energy from sources above lithosphere
(atmosphere or oceans).
• Better understood than internal processes; behavior is
predictable.
• In general, they are wearing-down or destructive forces,
diminishing relief of land surface.
Internal and External Geomorphic
Processes
15
16. Uniformitarianism
• Uniformitarianism—the concept that “the
present is the key to the past” in
geomorphic processes.
• The processes now in operation have also
operated in the same way in the past and
should also operate in future.
Geologic Time
• Geologic time
enumerates temporal
expanses of almost
unfathomable scope.
– Geologic time
encompasses millions and
hundreds of millions of
years.
• Four eras, three most
recent being subdivided
into 12 periods.
• Two most recent periods
divided into 7 epochs.
Geologic Time
• Chapter 13 offers chart of geologic time expressed in equivalent 1-year
scale.
– On one-year scale, first 4 months, planet was lifeless.
– One-celled life appeared in early May.
– Multicelled organisms began evolving in early November.
– Antediluvian fishes, the first vertebrates, appeared about November 21.
– Amphibians appeared late November.
– Vascular plants appeared about November 27.
– Reptiles began era of dominance about December 7.
– Mammals arrived about December 14; birds arrived December 15.
– Flowering plants arrived December 21.
– December 24 came the first grasses and first primates.
– First hominids came New Year’s Eve.
– Homo Sapiens arrived one hour before midnight.
– Age of written history equals last minute of the year.
• If geologic time examined in context of cliff one kilometer high (3300 ft.), an
individual’s existence would equal less than the thickness of the finest hair.
16
17. Scale and Pattern
• An Example of Scale
– Text offers an example of different perspectives of scale, from
largest scale of ordinary human experience, walking though a
landscape, to driving thorough it, to flying over it, to satellite
viewpoint, then to smallest scale, from perspective of
spacecraft.
• The Pursuit of Pattern
1. Orderly patterns of distribution are much more difficult to discern
in geomorphology than in other geographic elements, such as
climate.
2. Overall, global distribution of topography is very disordered and
irregular.
3. Comprehending process (dynamics of topographic
development) more important than study of landform
distribution.
• The Pursuit of Pattern
– Patterns in the
distribution of landforms
are difficult to discern.
– Geomorphology
concentrates less on
distribution and more on
process.
– Fig. 13-27
Scale and Pattern
17