General Water Treatment For Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLING SYSTEM
4.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
4.2 Open Evaporative Recirculating Systems
4.3 Closed Recirculating Systems
4.4 Comparison of Cooling Systems
5 MAKE-UP WATER QUALITY
6 FOULING PROCESSES
6.1 Deposition
6.2 Scaling
6.3 Corrosion
6.4 Biological Growth
7 CONTROL OF THE COOLING SYSTEM
7.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
7.2 Closed Recirculating Systems
7.3 Open Evaporative Cooling Systems
TABLES
1 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF FOULING PROCESSES AND INSTALLED COSTS
2 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
FIGURES
1 PREDICTION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE SCALING
2 CALCIUM SULFATE SOLUBILITY
3 CALCIUM PHOSPHATE SCALING INDEX
Gas Solid Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GAS-SOLID FLUIDIZED BED
5 MIXING IN FLUIDIZED BEDS
5.1 Group A Powders
5.2 Group B Powders
5.3 Group C Powders
5.4 Group D Powders
6 MECHANISMS OF MIXING AND SEGREGATION
6.1 Particle Segregation
6.2 Rate of Mixing
6.3 Solids Circulation
7 GRID DESIGN
7.1 Choice of Configuration
8 PLENUM CHAMBER DESIGN
9 SPOUTED BED
10 NOMENCLATURE
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 POWDER CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM FOR
FLUIDIZATION BY AIR
2 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF MIXING BY A SINGLE RISING BUBBLE IN A BED OF SMALL
PARTICLES
3 SEGREGATION PATTERNS WITH 'PRACTICAL'
MATERIALS
4 SPOUTED BED – DIAGRAMMATIC
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Fluid Separation
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 A SEPARATION LOGIC TREE
5 METHODS OF DISTILLATION
5.1 Fractional Distillation
5.2 Azeotropic Distillation
5.3 Extractive Distillation
6 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
7 OTHER COMMERCIAL METHODS OF SEPARATION
7.1 Adsorption
7.2 Fractional Crystallization
7.3 Ion Exchange
7.4 Membrane Processes
7.4.1 Ultrafiltration
7.4.2 Reverse Osmosis
7.4.3 Pervaporation
7.4.4 Liquid Membranes
7.4.5 Gas Permeation
7.4.6 Dialysis
7.4.7 Electrodialysis
7.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
7.6 Dissociation Extraction
7.7 Foam Fractionation
7.8 Clathration
7.9 Chromatography
8. OTHER METHODS OF SEPARATION
8.1 Precipitation
8.2 Paper Chromatography
8.3 Ligand Specific Chromatography
8.4 Electrophoresis
8.5 Isoelectric Focusing
8.6 Thermal Diffusion
8.7 Sedimentation Ultracentrifugation
8.8 Isopycnic Ultracentrifugation
8.9 Molecular Distillation
8.10 Gel Filtration
APPENDICES
A AT A GLANCE CHART BASED ON FENSKE, UNDERWOOD
B A GENERALIZED y - x DIAGRAM
C TEMPERATURE - COMPOSITION DIAGRAMS FOR
AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES
D A TYPICAL y - x DIAGRAM FOR EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION (SOLVENT FREE BASIS)
E RAPID ESTIMATION OF LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION REQUIREMENTS
F LIQUID - LIQUID EXTRACTION - THE USE OF EXTRACT REFLUX
G SELECTIVITIES REQUIRED FOR EQUAL PLANT COSTS
FIGURE
1 SEPARATION LOGIC TREE
Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SUITABILITY FOR AIR COOLING
4.1 Options Available For Cooling
4.2 Choice of Cooling System
5 SPECIFICATION OF AN AIR COOLED HEAT
EXCHANGER
5.1 Description and Terminology
5.2 General
5.3 Thermal Duty and Design Margins
5.4 Process Pressure Drop
5.5 Design Ambient Conditions
5.6 Process Physical Properties
5.7 Mechanical Design Constraints
5.8 Arrangement
5.9 Air Side Fouling
5.10 Economic Factors in Design
6 CONTROL
7 PRESSURE RELIEF
8 ASSESSMENT OF OFFERS
8.1 General
8.2 Manual Checking Of Designs
8.3 Computer Assessment
8.4 Bid Comparison
9 FOULING AND CORROSION
9.1 Fouling
9.2 Corrosion
10 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
10.1 Performance Testing
10.2 Air-Side Cleaning
10.3 Mechanical Maintenance
10.4 Tube side Access
11 REFERENCES
VLE Data - Selection and Use
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF IDEAL
AND NON-IDEAL SYSTEMS
4.1 Ideal Mixtures
4.2 Non-Ideal Mixtures
5 REVIEW OF VLE MODELS
5.1 Ideal Behavior in Both Phases
5.2 Liquid Phase Non-Idealities
5.3 High Pressure Systems
5.4 Special Models
6 SETTING UP A VLE MODEL
6.1 Define Problem
6.2 Select Data
6.3 Select Correlation(s)
6.4 Produce Model
7 AVOIDING PITFALLS
7.1 Experimental Data is Better than Estimates
7.2 Check Validity of Fitted Model
7.3 Check Limitations of Estimation Methods
7.4 Know Your System
7.5 Appreciate Errors and Effects
7.6 If in Doubt – Ask
8 A CASE STUDY
8.1 The Problem
8.2 The System
8.3 Data Available
8.4 Selected Correlation
8.5 Simulation
8.6 Selection of Model
9 RECOMMENDED READING
10 VLE EXPERTS IN GBHE
APPENDICES
A USE OF EXTENDED ANTOINE EQUATION
B USE OF WILSON EQUATION
C USEFUL METHODS OF ESTIMATING
D EQUATIONS OF STATE FOR VLE CALCULATIONS
TABLES
1 SUMMARY OF VLE METHODS
2 LIST OF USEFUL REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - IDEAL SOLUTION
BEHAVIOR
2 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - A GENERALISED
Y-X DIAGRAM
3 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
4 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MAXIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
5 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE -TWO LIQUID PHASES
6 SENSITIVITY TO ERROR IN VLE DATA (BASED ON FENSKE EQUATION)
7(a) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE A
7(b) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE B
7(c) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE C
Physical Properties for Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 COMPONENT PROPERTIES
4.1 General
4.2 Use of Component Properties for Mixtures
5 INPUT OF MIXTURE CURVES
5.1 General
5.2 Generation of the Mixture Curves
5.3 Selection of Temperature Points
5.4 Extrapolation
6 IMMISCIBLE CONDENSATES
FIGURES
1 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR EQUAL ENTHALPY CHANGE
2 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR GOOD
FIT TO CURVE
Design and Simulation of Continuous Distillation ColumnsGerard B. Hawkins
Design and Simulation of Continuous Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
5 ROUGH METHOD OF COLUMN DESIGN
5.1 Sharp Separations
5.2 Sloppy Separations
6 DETAIL DESIGN USING THE CHEMCAD DISTILLATION PROGRAM
6.1 Sharp Separations
6.2 Sloppy Separations
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS
7.1 Multiple Feeds
7.2 Sidestream Take-Offs
8 DESIGN USING A LABORATORY COLUMN
SIMULATION
9 DESIGN USING ACTUAL PLANT DATA
9.1 Uprating or Debottlenecking Exercises
10 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A WORKED EXAMPLE
B SLOPPY SEPARATIONS
C SIMULATION USING PLANT DATA : CASE HISTORIES
TABLES
Gas Solid Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GAS-SOLID FLUIDIZED BED
5 MIXING IN FLUIDIZED BEDS
5.1 Group A Powders
5.2 Group B Powders
5.3 Group C Powders
5.4 Group D Powders
6 MECHANISMS OF MIXING AND SEGREGATION
6.1 Particle Segregation
6.2 Rate of Mixing
6.3 Solids Circulation
7 GRID DESIGN
7.1 Choice of Configuration
8 PLENUM CHAMBER DESIGN
9 SPOUTED BED
10 NOMENCLATURE
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 POWDER CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM FOR
FLUIDIZATION BY AIR
2 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF MIXING BY A SINGLE RISING BUBBLE IN A BED OF SMALL
PARTICLES
3 SEGREGATION PATTERNS WITH 'PRACTICAL'
MATERIALS
4 SPOUTED BED – DIAGRAMMATIC
How to use the GBHE Reactor Technology Guides
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND
5 THE DECISION TREE
6 GBHE REACTION ENGINEERING
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF REACTOR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 Criteria of Reactor Performance
7.2 Factors of Economic Importance
7.3 Physicochemical Mechanisms
8 GENERAL GUIDE TO SELECTION OF REACTOR TYPE AND OPERATION
8.1 Choice of Reactor Type
8.2 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics
8.3 Thermodynamics
8.4 Other Factors
9 GENERAL REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
APPENDICES
A RELATIONSHIP BEWTEEN DEFINED TERMS
FIGURES
1 DECISION TREE
2 RELATIVE YIELDS OF B FOR BATCH (OR PLUG FLOW) AND CST REACTORS
3 REACTOR SURVEY FORM
Fluid Separation
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 A SEPARATION LOGIC TREE
5 METHODS OF DISTILLATION
5.1 Fractional Distillation
5.2 Azeotropic Distillation
5.3 Extractive Distillation
6 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
7 OTHER COMMERCIAL METHODS OF SEPARATION
7.1 Adsorption
7.2 Fractional Crystallization
7.3 Ion Exchange
7.4 Membrane Processes
7.4.1 Ultrafiltration
7.4.2 Reverse Osmosis
7.4.3 Pervaporation
7.4.4 Liquid Membranes
7.4.5 Gas Permeation
7.4.6 Dialysis
7.4.7 Electrodialysis
7.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
7.6 Dissociation Extraction
7.7 Foam Fractionation
7.8 Clathration
7.9 Chromatography
8. OTHER METHODS OF SEPARATION
8.1 Precipitation
8.2 Paper Chromatography
8.3 Ligand Specific Chromatography
8.4 Electrophoresis
8.5 Isoelectric Focusing
8.6 Thermal Diffusion
8.7 Sedimentation Ultracentrifugation
8.8 Isopycnic Ultracentrifugation
8.9 Molecular Distillation
8.10 Gel Filtration
APPENDICES
A AT A GLANCE CHART BASED ON FENSKE, UNDERWOOD
B A GENERALIZED y - x DIAGRAM
C TEMPERATURE - COMPOSITION DIAGRAMS FOR
AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES
D A TYPICAL y - x DIAGRAM FOR EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION (SOLVENT FREE BASIS)
E RAPID ESTIMATION OF LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION REQUIREMENTS
F LIQUID - LIQUID EXTRACTION - THE USE OF EXTRACT REFLUX
G SELECTIVITIES REQUIRED FOR EQUAL PLANT COSTS
FIGURE
1 SEPARATION LOGIC TREE
Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SUITABILITY FOR AIR COOLING
4.1 Options Available For Cooling
4.2 Choice of Cooling System
5 SPECIFICATION OF AN AIR COOLED HEAT
EXCHANGER
5.1 Description and Terminology
5.2 General
5.3 Thermal Duty and Design Margins
5.4 Process Pressure Drop
5.5 Design Ambient Conditions
5.6 Process Physical Properties
5.7 Mechanical Design Constraints
5.8 Arrangement
5.9 Air Side Fouling
5.10 Economic Factors in Design
6 CONTROL
7 PRESSURE RELIEF
8 ASSESSMENT OF OFFERS
8.1 General
8.2 Manual Checking Of Designs
8.3 Computer Assessment
8.4 Bid Comparison
9 FOULING AND CORROSION
9.1 Fouling
9.2 Corrosion
10 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
10.1 Performance Testing
10.2 Air-Side Cleaning
10.3 Mechanical Maintenance
10.4 Tube side Access
11 REFERENCES
VLE Data - Selection and Use
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF IDEAL
AND NON-IDEAL SYSTEMS
4.1 Ideal Mixtures
4.2 Non-Ideal Mixtures
5 REVIEW OF VLE MODELS
5.1 Ideal Behavior in Both Phases
5.2 Liquid Phase Non-Idealities
5.3 High Pressure Systems
5.4 Special Models
6 SETTING UP A VLE MODEL
6.1 Define Problem
6.2 Select Data
6.3 Select Correlation(s)
6.4 Produce Model
7 AVOIDING PITFALLS
7.1 Experimental Data is Better than Estimates
7.2 Check Validity of Fitted Model
7.3 Check Limitations of Estimation Methods
7.4 Know Your System
7.5 Appreciate Errors and Effects
7.6 If in Doubt – Ask
8 A CASE STUDY
8.1 The Problem
8.2 The System
8.3 Data Available
8.4 Selected Correlation
8.5 Simulation
8.6 Selection of Model
9 RECOMMENDED READING
10 VLE EXPERTS IN GBHE
APPENDICES
A USE OF EXTENDED ANTOINE EQUATION
B USE OF WILSON EQUATION
C USEFUL METHODS OF ESTIMATING
D EQUATIONS OF STATE FOR VLE CALCULATIONS
TABLES
1 SUMMARY OF VLE METHODS
2 LIST OF USEFUL REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - IDEAL SOLUTION
BEHAVIOR
2 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - A GENERALISED
Y-X DIAGRAM
3 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
4 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MAXIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE
5 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - MINIMUM BOILING
AZEOTROPE -TWO LIQUID PHASES
6 SENSITIVITY TO ERROR IN VLE DATA (BASED ON FENSKE EQUATION)
7(a) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE A
7(b) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE B
7(c) FITTING WILSON 'A' VALUES TO VLE DATA - CASE C
Physical Properties for Heat Exchanger Design
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 COMPONENT PROPERTIES
4.1 General
4.2 Use of Component Properties for Mixtures
5 INPUT OF MIXTURE CURVES
5.1 General
5.2 Generation of the Mixture Curves
5.3 Selection of Temperature Points
5.4 Extrapolation
6 IMMISCIBLE CONDENSATES
FIGURES
1 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR EQUAL ENTHALPY CHANGE
2 TEMPERATURE POINTS SELECTED FOR GOOD
FIT TO CURVE
Design and Simulation of Continuous Distillation ColumnsGerard B. Hawkins
Design and Simulation of Continuous Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
5 ROUGH METHOD OF COLUMN DESIGN
5.1 Sharp Separations
5.2 Sloppy Separations
6 DETAIL DESIGN USING THE CHEMCAD DISTILLATION PROGRAM
6.1 Sharp Separations
6.2 Sloppy Separations
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS
7.1 Multiple Feeds
7.2 Sidestream Take-Offs
8 DESIGN USING A LABORATORY COLUMN
SIMULATION
9 DESIGN USING ACTUAL PLANT DATA
9.1 Uprating or Debottlenecking Exercises
10 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A WORKED EXAMPLE
B SLOPPY SEPARATIONS
C SIMULATION USING PLANT DATA : CASE HISTORIES
TABLES
This document provides guidance on mixing dry particulate solids. It discusses key differences between mixing solids versus liquids and gases. Namely, solids have no diffusion, particle properties can cause non-random movement, and particles are much larger than molecules. The document also covers qualitative and quantitative ways to assess mixture quality, such as scale of segregation and variance. It provides equations to calculate the theoretical best mixture quality based on formulation and scale of scrutiny. Selection of an appropriate mixer depends on whether the solids are free-flowing or cohesive. Sampling methods are important to properly assess mixture quality.
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 APPLICABILITY AND LIMITATIONS
4.1 Applicability
4.2 Limitations
5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
6 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
7 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
8 USE OF “The VAULT”
8.1 Limitations of “The VAULT”
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Electric Process Heaters
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
4.1 Safety
4.2 Environment
4.3 Location of Equipment
4.4 Low Temperature Applications
4.5 Cross Contamination
4.6 Control
5 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
6 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR ELECTRIC
PROCESS HEATERS
7 GENERAL DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS
8 TYPES OF PROCESS ELECTRIC HEATERS
8.1 Pipeline Immersion Heaters
8.2 Tank Heaters and Boilers
8.3 Indirect (Fluid Bath) Heaters
8.4 Radiant Furnaces
8.5 Induction Heaters
8.6 Hot Block Heaters
9 CONTROL
10 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 ELECTRIC HEAT EXCHANGER CONSTRUCTION
2 SHEATHED HEATING ELEMENTS
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Psychrometry
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS
5 EXAMPLE CALCULATION
6 CHARTS FOR SPECIFIC SYSTEMS
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 GROSVENOR CHART (Humidity vs. Temperature)
FOR AIR-WATER VAPOR AT 1.0133 bar
2 MOLLIER CHART (Enthalpy vs. Humidity) FOR
NITROGEN-TOLUENE VAPOR AT 100 kPa
Thermal Design Margins for Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TERMINOLOGY
5 REASONS FOR SPECIFYING A DESIGN MARGIN
5.1 Instantaneous Rates
5.2 Future Uprating
5.3 Plant Upsets
5.4 Process Control
5.5 Uncertainties in Properties
5.6 Uncertainties in Design Methods
5.7 Fouling
6 COMBINATION OF DESIGN MARGINS
7 CRITICAL AND NON-CRITICAL DUTIES
7.1 General
7.2 Penalties of Over-design
8 OPTIMIZATION OF EXCHANGER DUTY
9 WAYS OF PROVIDING DESIGN MARGINS
9.1 The Provision of Excess Surface
9.2 Decreasing the Design Temperature Difference
9.3 Increasing the Design Process Throughput
9.4 Increasing the Design Fouling Resistance
9.5 Reducing the Design Process Outlet Temperature Approach
9.6 Adjusting the Physical Properties
10 ACCURACY OF THE DESIGN METHODS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
10.1 Pressure Drop
10.2 Heat Transfer
11 SUGGESTED DESIGN MARGINS
11.1 No Phase Change Duties
11.2 Condensers
11.3 Boilers
12 EFFECT OF UNDER- OR OVER-SURFACE ON PERFORMANCE
FIGURES
1 EFFECT OF LENGTH ON EXCHANGER DUTY COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0
2 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TUBES ON EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0, ALL RESISTANCE IN TUBES
3 EFFECT OF TUBE LENGTH ON NUMBER OF TUBES, AREA AND PRESSURE DROP
Batch Distillation
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THE DESIGN
4.1 General
4.2 Choice of batch/continuous operation
4.3 Boiling point curve and cut policy
4.4 Method of design
4.5 Scope of calculations required for design
5 SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION
6 FRACTIONAL BATCH DISTILLATION
6.1 General
6.2 Approximate methods
6.3 Rigorous design - use of a computer model
6.4 Other factors influencing the design
6.4.1 Occupation
6.4.2 Choice of Batch Rectification or Stripping
6.4.3 Batch size
6.4.4 Initial estimate of cut policy
6.4.5 Liquid Holdup
6.4.6 Total reflux operation and heating-up time
6.4.7 Column operating pressure
6.5 Optimum Design of the Batch Still
6.6 Special design problems
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 Kettle reboilers
7.2 Column Internals
7.3 Condensers and reflux split boxes
8 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN
BATCH DISTILLATION
9 MECHANICAL DESIGN FEATURES
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A McCABE - THIELE METHOD - TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Interpretation and Correlation of Viscometric Data
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID BEHAVIOR
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids
4.3 Caution
5 VISCOMETER MEASUREMENTS FOR
TIME-INDEPENDENT FLUIDS
5.1 Concentric Cylinder Viscometers
5.2 Cone and Plate Viscometers
5.3 Parallel Plate Viscometer
5.4 Tube or Capillary Viscometer
5.5 Checks for Consistency of Data and Interpretation
5.6 Estimate of Process Shear Rate
6 MODEL FITTING TO FLOW CURVES
6.1 Power Law
6.2 Bingham Plastic
6.3 Direct use of Numerical Data
6.4 Rheological Models Involving Temperature Dependence
7 CHARACTERIZATION OF TIME-DEPENDENT LIQUIDS
7.1 Sample Loading
7.2 Tests at Constant Shear Rate
7.3 Dynamic Response Measurement
7.4 Changes in Shear Rate
7.4 Concluding Remarks
8 TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF
VISCOELASTIC LIQUIDS
8.1 Stress Relaxation
8.2 Oscillatory Shear Measurements
8.3 Normal Force Measurement
8.4 Elongational Viscosity Measurement
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A EQUATIONS FOR VISCOMETERS
A.1 EQUATIONS FOR CONCENTRIC CYLINDER
VISCOMETERS
A.2 EQUATIONS FOR CONE AND PLATE VISCOMETERS
A.3 EQUATIONS FOR PARALLEL PLATE VISCOMETER
A.4 EQUATIONS FOR TUBE OR CAPILLARY VISCOMETER
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 STANDARD DIMENSIONS
4.1 Shell Diameters
4.2 Tube Lengths
4.3 Tube Diameters
4.4 Tube Wall Thicknesses
5 CLEARANCES
5.1 Tube Pitch
5.2 Pass Partition Lane Widths
5.3 Minimum 'U' Bend Clearance
5.4 Tube-to-Baffle Clearance
5.5 Baffle-to-Shell Clearance
5.6 Bundle-to-Shell Clearance
6 TUBESHEET THICKNESS
7 END ZONE LENGTHS
8 TUBE COUNTS
8.1 Program Correlations
8.2 Use of Tube count Tables
8.3 Graphical Layout
8.4 Use of Computer Programs
8.5 Tie Rods
TABLES
1 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
150 FLANGE
2 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
300 FLANGE
3 TEMA TIE ROD STANDARDS
FIGURES
1 DEFINITION OF TUBE PITCH, LIGAMENT THICKNESS & PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH
2 DEFINITION OF PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH FOR U-TUBES
3 BUNDLE TO SHELL CLEARANCES FOR DIFFERENT BUNDLE TYPES
4 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR FIXED TUBE CONSTRUCTION
5 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR U-TUBE CONSTRUCTION
6 END ZONE
7 EXAMPLE OF OPTU3 GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
How to Use the GBHE Mixing Guides
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE MIXING GUIDES
4.1 Mixing Guides
4.2 GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual
5 DEVICE SELECTION
6 MIXING QUESTIONNAIRE
6.1 What is being mixed?
6.2 Why is it being mixed?
6.3 How is it to be mixed?
6.4 Is Heat Transfer Important?
6.5 Is Mixing Time Important?
6.6 Is Inventory Important?
6.7 Is Subsequent Phase Separation Important?
6.8 What Quantities?
6.9 What are the Selection Criteria?
6.10 What Data are required?
7 BASICS
7.1 Bulk Movement
7.2 Shear and Elongation
7.3 Turbulent Diffusion
7.4 Molecular Diffusion
7.5 Mixing Mechanisms
APPENDICES
A ROTATING MIXING DEVICES
B MIXING DEVICES WITHOUT MOVING PARTS
Selection and Design of Condensers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLANT
5 LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Distillation Column Condensers
5.2 Other Process Condensers
6 CONTROL
6.1 Distillation Columns
6.2 Water Cooled Condensers
6.3 Refrigerant Condensers
7 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7.1 Heat Transfer Resistances
7.2 Pressure Drop
7.3 Handling of Inerts
7.4 Vapor Inlet Design
7.5 Drainage of Condensate
8 SUMMARY OF TYPES AVAILABLE
8.1 Direct Contact Condensers
8.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers
8.3 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.4 Spiral Plate Heat Exchangers
8.5 Internal Condensers
8.6 Plate Heat Exchangers
8.7 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
8.8 Other Compact Designs
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 DIRECT CONTACT CONDENSER WITH INDIRECT COOLER FOR RECYCLED CONDENSATE
2 SPRAY CONDENSER
3 TRAY TYPE CONDENSER
4 THREE PASS TUBE SIDE CONDENSER WITH INTERPASS LUTING FOR CONDENSATE DRAINAGE
5 CROSS FLOW CONDENSER WITH SINGLE PASS COOLANT
Troubleshooting in Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR TROUBLESHOOTING
5 GENERAL APPRAISAL OF PROBLEM
5.1 Is the Problem Real?
5.2 What Is the Magnitude of the Problem?
5.3 Is it the Column or the Associated Equipment which is Causing the Problem?
6 PROBLEMS IN THE COLUMN
6.1 Capacity Problems
6.2 Efficiency Problems
7 PROBLEMS OUTSIDE THE COLUMN
7.1 Effect of Other Units on Column Performance
7.2 Column Control System
7.3 Improper Operating Conditions
7.4 Auxiliary Equipment
8 USEFUL BACKGROUND READING
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR TROUBLESHOOTING
2 DETERMINATION OF COLUMN CAPACITY
Pumps for Hydrocarbon Service
1 SCOPE
2 HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2.1 General
2.2 Pure Hydrocarbons
2.3 Associated Compounds
2.4 Crude Oil
2.5 Toxicology
2.6 Cavitation
2.7 Velocity of Sound
3 FLAMMABILITY HAZARDS
3.1 General
3.2 Definitions
3.3 The Electrical Area Classification
4 CHOICE OF PUMP TYPE
5 LINE DIAGRAM (PROCESS)
6 LAYOUT
7 SHAFT SEALS
7.1 Selection
7.2 Engineering of Seals
8 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
8.1 General
8.2 Effects of Low Density
9 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
9.1 Process Wetted Parts
9.2 Mechanical Components
9.3 Non Metallic’s
APPENDIX A - BARNARD & WEIR SEAL THEORY FIGURES
1 VAPOR PRESSURE OF HYDROCARBONS
2 VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS
3 VAPOR PRESSURE OF GASOLINES
4 SPECIFIC HEAT OF HYDROCARBON LIQUIDS
5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OLEFINE, DI OLEFINES AND PARAFFINS
6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AROMATICS
7 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR PARAFFINS, AROMATICS
AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
8 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR MINERAL LUBRICATING
OILS
TABLES
1 PURE HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2A CRUDE OILS PROPERTIES
2B NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL, NAPHTHAS AND KEROSENE
2C NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF GAS OILS AND RESIDUES
3 PURE HYROCARBON FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CONSTRUCTION
5 HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
6 FOULING
7 MECHANICAL AND MATERIALS ASPECTS
8 COMPACTNESS
9 FLEXIBILITY
10 COST
11 GBHE EXPERIENCE 5
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP IN
WAVY PASSAGES
Design and Rating of Packed Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
5 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES
6 DESCRIPTION OF PACKED COLUMN INTERNALS
7. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Selection of Packing Size
7.2 Rough Design
7.3 Detailed Design and Rating
8 LIQUID DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION
8.1 Basic Concepts
8.2 Pour Point Density
8.3 Peripheral Irrigation - the Wall Zone
8.4 Distributor Levelness
8.5 Maximum Bed Height and Liquid Redistribution
9 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PACKED COLUMN DESIGN
9.1 Packing
9.2 Support Grid
9.3 Liquid Collector
9.4 Liquid Distributor or Redistributor
9.5 Packing Hold-down Grid
9.6 Reflux or Feed Pipe
9.7 Reboil Return Pipe
9.8 Liquid Draw-offs
9.9 Vapor Draw-offs
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A DEFINITIONS
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 MECHANICAL DEFINITIONS
A.3 PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS
B PACKING HYDRAULICS - THE NORTON METHOD
TABLES
1 PACKING FACTORS FOR THE MORE COMMON
RANDOM PACKINGS
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian FluidsGerard B. Hawkins
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF PURELY VISCOUS
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
4.1 Experimental Characterization
4.2 Rheological Models
5 PRESSURE DROP-FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS
BASED DIRECTLY ON EXPERIMENTAL DATA
5.1 Use of Shear Stress – Shear Rate Data
5.2 Tubular Viscometer Data
6 PRESSURE DROP – FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
7 LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS
7.1 Entrances Losses
7.2 Expansion Effects
7.3 Contraction Losses
7.4 Valves
7.5 Bends
8 EFFECT OF WALL SLIP
9 VELOCITY PROFILES
9.1 Velocity Profile from Experimental Flow-Curve
9.2 Velocity Profile from Rheological Model
9.3 Residence Time Distribution
10 CHECKS ON THE VALIDITY OF THE
DESIGN PROCEDURES
10.1 Rheological Behavior
10.2 Validity of Experimental Data
10.2 Check on Laminar Flow
11 NOMENCLATURE
12 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 FLOW CURVES FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
2 PLOTS OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 32Q/ɳD3 FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
3 LOG-LOG PLOT OF t VERSUS ý
4 FLOW CURVE FOR A BINGHAM PLASTIC
5 LOG-LOG PLOT FOR A GENERALIZED BINGHAM
PLASTIC
6 CORRELATION OF ENTRANCE LOSS
7 CORRELATION OF EXPANSION LOSS
8 EFFECT OF “WALL SLIP” ON VELOCITY PROFILE
9 D∆P/4L VERSUS Q/ɳR3 WITH WALL SLIP
10 EVALUATION OFUs WITH Ʈw
11 VARIATION OF Us WITH Ʈw
12 PLOT OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 8 (ū- Us)/D FOR
CONDITIONS OF WALL SLIP
13 CUMULATIVE RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
TO POWER LAW FLUIDS
14 EFFECTS OF TUBE LENGTH AND DIAMETER ON
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN D∆P/4L AND 32Q/ɳD3
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fouling Resistances for Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL
5 COOLING WATER FOULING
6 CHROMATE SYSTEMS
6.1 General
6.2 Constraints
6.3 Requirements
6.4 Fouling resistances
7 NON-CHROMATE SYSTEMS
7.1 General
7.2 Requirements and Constraints
7.3 Fouling resistances
8 UNTREATED COOLING WATER
9 MATERIALS OTHER THAN MILD STEEL
APPENDICES
A FOULING RESISTANCES FOR COOLING WATER
B FOULING FILM THICKNESS
Integration of Reciprocating Metering Pumps Into A ProcessGerard B. Hawkins
Integration of Reciprocating Metering Pumps into a Process
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF PUMP
SECTION A - TYPE/FLOW/PRESSURE/SPEED RATING
Al Pumping Pressure
A2 Pump Flowrate and Capacity
A3 Guide to Pump Speed & Type
A4 Metering Criteria
A5 Pressure Pulsation
A6 Over Delivery
SECTION B - INLET CONDITIONS
B1 Calculation of Basic NPSH
B2 Correction for Frictional Head
B3 Correction for Acceleration Head
B4 Calculation of Available NPSH
B5 Corrections to NPSH for Fluid Properties
B6 Estimation of NPSH Required
B7 Priming
SECTION C - POWER RATING
C1 Pump Efficiency
C2 Calculation of Absorbed Power
C3 Determination of Driver Power Rating
SECTION D - CASING PRESSURE RATING
Dl Calculation of Maximum Discharge Pressure
D2 Discharge Pressure Relief Rating
D3 Calculation of Pump Head Outlet Losses
D4 Casing Hydrostatic Test Pressure
APPENDICES
A RELIABILITY CLASSIFICATION
FIGURES
A3.1 ESTIMATE OF CRANK SPEED
A3.3 SELECTION OF PUMPING HEAD TYPE
B5.1 ESTIMATE OF VISCOSITY OF FINE SUSPENSIONS
B6 ESTIMATE OF NPSH REQUIRED
C1.1 GRAPH - VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY VS MEAN DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
This document provides an overview of cooling water problems and solutions. It discusses common issues like scaling, corrosion, and biological growth that result from poor water quality. The document then covers critical water parameters like conductivity, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and saturation index. It explains different types of scale and methods to control scale, such as water softening, pH adjustment, controlling concentration cycles, and chemical treatment. The focus is on maintaining water quality to prevent problems and reduce maintenance costs for cooling systems.
This document discusses cooling water treatment at a fertilizer plant in India. It provides details on the plant's cooling towers and water chemistry parameters. Cooling water treatment is needed to prevent corrosion, scaling, and microbial fouling of the system. Common issues like corrosion, scaling, and biofouling are discussed along with the mechanisms of corrosion inhibition, scale inhibition, and microbial control through chemical treatment.
This document provides guidance on mixing dry particulate solids. It discusses key differences between mixing solids versus liquids and gases. Namely, solids have no diffusion, particle properties can cause non-random movement, and particles are much larger than molecules. The document also covers qualitative and quantitative ways to assess mixture quality, such as scale of segregation and variance. It provides equations to calculate the theoretical best mixture quality based on formulation and scale of scrutiny. Selection of an appropriate mixer depends on whether the solids are free-flowing or cohesive. Sampling methods are important to properly assess mixture quality.
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular TubesGerard B. Hawkins
Laminar Heat Transfer to Non Newtonian Fluids in Circular Tubes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 APPLICABILITY AND LIMITATIONS
4.1 Applicability
4.2 Limitations
5 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
6 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
7 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
8 USE OF “The VAULT”
8.1 Limitations of “The VAULT”
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Electric Process Heaters
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
4.1 Safety
4.2 Environment
4.3 Location of Equipment
4.4 Low Temperature Applications
4.5 Cross Contamination
4.6 Control
5 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATERS
6 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR ELECTRIC
PROCESS HEATERS
7 GENERAL DESIGN AND OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS
8 TYPES OF PROCESS ELECTRIC HEATERS
8.1 Pipeline Immersion Heaters
8.2 Tank Heaters and Boilers
8.3 Indirect (Fluid Bath) Heaters
8.4 Radiant Furnaces
8.5 Induction Heaters
8.6 Hot Block Heaters
9 CONTROL
10 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 ELECTRIC HEAT EXCHANGER CONSTRUCTION
2 SHEATHED HEATING ELEMENTS
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat IntegrationGerard B. Hawkins
Distillation Sequences, Complex Columns and Heat Integration
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 SEQUENCING OF SIMPLE COLUMNS
4.1 Sidestream Columns
4.2 Multi-Feed Columns
5 SIMPLE COLUMN SEQUENCING AND HEAT
INTEGRATION INTERACTIONS
5.1 Energy Quantity and Quality
5.2 Heat Integration within the Total Flowsheet
6 COMPLEX COLUMN ARRANGEMENTS
6.1 Indirect Sequence with Vapor Link
6.2 Sidestream Systems
6.3 Pre-Fractionator Systems
7 COMPLEX COLUMNS AND HEAT INTEGRATION
INTERACTIONS
FIGURES
1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SEQUENCES
2 A SINGLE SIDESTREAM COLUMN REPLACING 2
SIMPLE COLUMNS
3 A TYPICAL MULTI-FEED COLUMN
4 TYPICAL GRAND COMPOSITION CURVE
5 TYPICAL INDIRECT SEQUENCE WITH VAPOUR LINK
6 SIDESTREAM STRIPPER AND SIDESTREAM
RECTIFIER
7 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
8 SIMPLEST PRE-FRACTIONATOR SYSTEM
9 PETLYUK COLUMN
Psychrometry
0 INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS
5 EXAMPLE CALCULATION
6 CHARTS FOR SPECIFIC SYSTEMS
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 GROSVENOR CHART (Humidity vs. Temperature)
FOR AIR-WATER VAPOR AT 1.0133 bar
2 MOLLIER CHART (Enthalpy vs. Humidity) FOR
NITROGEN-TOLUENE VAPOR AT 100 kPa
Thermal Design Margins for Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 TERMINOLOGY
5 REASONS FOR SPECIFYING A DESIGN MARGIN
5.1 Instantaneous Rates
5.2 Future Uprating
5.3 Plant Upsets
5.4 Process Control
5.5 Uncertainties in Properties
5.6 Uncertainties in Design Methods
5.7 Fouling
6 COMBINATION OF DESIGN MARGINS
7 CRITICAL AND NON-CRITICAL DUTIES
7.1 General
7.2 Penalties of Over-design
8 OPTIMIZATION OF EXCHANGER DUTY
9 WAYS OF PROVIDING DESIGN MARGINS
9.1 The Provision of Excess Surface
9.2 Decreasing the Design Temperature Difference
9.3 Increasing the Design Process Throughput
9.4 Increasing the Design Fouling Resistance
9.5 Reducing the Design Process Outlet Temperature Approach
9.6 Adjusting the Physical Properties
10 ACCURACY OF THE DESIGN METHODS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
10.1 Pressure Drop
10.2 Heat Transfer
11 SUGGESTED DESIGN MARGINS
11.1 No Phase Change Duties
11.2 Condensers
11.3 Boilers
12 EFFECT OF UNDER- OR OVER-SURFACE ON PERFORMANCE
FIGURES
1 EFFECT OF LENGTH ON EXCHANGER DUTY COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0
2 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF TUBES ON EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE COUNTERCURRENT FLOW, C* = 1.0, ALL RESISTANCE IN TUBES
3 EFFECT OF TUBE LENGTH ON NUMBER OF TUBES, AREA AND PRESSURE DROP
Batch Distillation
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 BACKGROUND TO THE DESIGN
4.1 General
4.2 Choice of batch/continuous operation
4.3 Boiling point curve and cut policy
4.4 Method of design
4.5 Scope of calculations required for design
5 SIMPLE BATCH DISTILLATION
6 FRACTIONAL BATCH DISTILLATION
6.1 General
6.2 Approximate methods
6.3 Rigorous design - use of a computer model
6.4 Other factors influencing the design
6.4.1 Occupation
6.4.2 Choice of Batch Rectification or Stripping
6.4.3 Batch size
6.4.4 Initial estimate of cut policy
6.4.5 Liquid Holdup
6.4.6 Total reflux operation and heating-up time
6.4.7 Column operating pressure
6.5 Optimum Design of the Batch Still
6.6 Special design problems
7 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1 Kettle reboilers
7.2 Column Internals
7.3 Condensers and reflux split boxes
8 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION IN
BATCH DISTILLATION
9 MECHANICAL DESIGN FEATURES
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A McCABE - THIELE METHOD - TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Interpretation and Correlation of Viscometric Data
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID BEHAVIOR
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluids
4.3 Caution
5 VISCOMETER MEASUREMENTS FOR
TIME-INDEPENDENT FLUIDS
5.1 Concentric Cylinder Viscometers
5.2 Cone and Plate Viscometers
5.3 Parallel Plate Viscometer
5.4 Tube or Capillary Viscometer
5.5 Checks for Consistency of Data and Interpretation
5.6 Estimate of Process Shear Rate
6 MODEL FITTING TO FLOW CURVES
6.1 Power Law
6.2 Bingham Plastic
6.3 Direct use of Numerical Data
6.4 Rheological Models Involving Temperature Dependence
7 CHARACTERIZATION OF TIME-DEPENDENT LIQUIDS
7.1 Sample Loading
7.2 Tests at Constant Shear Rate
7.3 Dynamic Response Measurement
7.4 Changes in Shear Rate
7.4 Concluding Remarks
8 TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF
VISCOELASTIC LIQUIDS
8.1 Stress Relaxation
8.2 Oscillatory Shear Measurements
8.3 Normal Force Measurement
8.4 Elongational Viscosity Measurement
9 NOMENCLATURE
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A EQUATIONS FOR VISCOMETERS
A.1 EQUATIONS FOR CONCENTRIC CYLINDER
VISCOMETERS
A.2 EQUATIONS FOR CONE AND PLATE VISCOMETERS
A.3 EQUATIONS FOR PARALLEL PLATE VISCOMETER
A.4 EQUATIONS FOR TUBE OR CAPILLARY VISCOMETER
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Mechanical Constraints on Thermal Design of Shell and Tube Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 STANDARD DIMENSIONS
4.1 Shell Diameters
4.2 Tube Lengths
4.3 Tube Diameters
4.4 Tube Wall Thicknesses
5 CLEARANCES
5.1 Tube Pitch
5.2 Pass Partition Lane Widths
5.3 Minimum 'U' Bend Clearance
5.4 Tube-to-Baffle Clearance
5.5 Baffle-to-Shell Clearance
5.6 Bundle-to-Shell Clearance
6 TUBESHEET THICKNESS
7 END ZONE LENGTHS
8 TUBE COUNTS
8.1 Program Correlations
8.2 Use of Tube count Tables
8.3 Graphical Layout
8.4 Use of Computer Programs
8.5 Tie Rods
TABLES
1 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
150 FLANGE
2 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELLS - GEOMETRICAL DATA
FOR INLET & OUTLET BRANCHES: PIPE WITH ANSI
300 FLANGE
3 TEMA TIE ROD STANDARDS
FIGURES
1 DEFINITION OF TUBE PITCH, LIGAMENT THICKNESS & PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH
2 DEFINITION OF PASS PARTITION LANE WIDTH FOR U-TUBES
3 BUNDLE TO SHELL CLEARANCES FOR DIFFERENT BUNDLE TYPES
4 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR FIXED TUBE CONSTRUCTION
5 ESTIMATED TUBESHEET THICKNESS FOR U-TUBE CONSTRUCTION
6 END ZONE
7 EXAMPLE OF OPTU3 GRAPHICAL OUTPUT
How to Use the GBHE Mixing Guides
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE MIXING GUIDES
4.1 Mixing Guides
4.2 GBHE Mixing and Agitation Manual
5 DEVICE SELECTION
6 MIXING QUESTIONNAIRE
6.1 What is being mixed?
6.2 Why is it being mixed?
6.3 How is it to be mixed?
6.4 Is Heat Transfer Important?
6.5 Is Mixing Time Important?
6.6 Is Inventory Important?
6.7 Is Subsequent Phase Separation Important?
6.8 What Quantities?
6.9 What are the Selection Criteria?
6.10 What Data are required?
7 BASICS
7.1 Bulk Movement
7.2 Shear and Elongation
7.3 Turbulent Diffusion
7.4 Molecular Diffusion
7.5 Mixing Mechanisms
APPENDICES
A ROTATING MIXING DEVICES
B MIXING DEVICES WITHOUT MOVING PARTS
Selection and Design of Condensers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLANT
5 LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 Distillation Column Condensers
5.2 Other Process Condensers
6 CONTROL
6.1 Distillation Columns
6.2 Water Cooled Condensers
6.3 Refrigerant Condensers
7 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7.1 Heat Transfer Resistances
7.2 Pressure Drop
7.3 Handling of Inerts
7.4 Vapor Inlet Design
7.5 Drainage of Condensate
8 SUMMARY OF TYPES AVAILABLE
8.1 Direct Contact Condensers
8.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers
8.3 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.4 Spiral Plate Heat Exchangers
8.5 Internal Condensers
8.6 Plate Heat Exchangers
8.7 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
8.8 Other Compact Designs
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 DIRECT CONTACT CONDENSER WITH INDIRECT COOLER FOR RECYCLED CONDENSATE
2 SPRAY CONDENSER
3 TRAY TYPE CONDENSER
4 THREE PASS TUBE SIDE CONDENSER WITH INTERPASS LUTING FOR CONDENSATE DRAINAGE
5 CROSS FLOW CONDENSER WITH SINGLE PASS COOLANT
Troubleshooting in Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR TROUBLESHOOTING
5 GENERAL APPRAISAL OF PROBLEM
5.1 Is the Problem Real?
5.2 What Is the Magnitude of the Problem?
5.3 Is it the Column or the Associated Equipment which is Causing the Problem?
6 PROBLEMS IN THE COLUMN
6.1 Capacity Problems
6.2 Efficiency Problems
7 PROBLEMS OUTSIDE THE COLUMN
7.1 Effect of Other Units on Column Performance
7.2 Column Control System
7.3 Improper Operating Conditions
7.4 Auxiliary Equipment
8 USEFUL BACKGROUND READING
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR TROUBLESHOOTING
2 DETERMINATION OF COLUMN CAPACITY
Pumps for Hydrocarbon Service
1 SCOPE
2 HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2.1 General
2.2 Pure Hydrocarbons
2.3 Associated Compounds
2.4 Crude Oil
2.5 Toxicology
2.6 Cavitation
2.7 Velocity of Sound
3 FLAMMABILITY HAZARDS
3.1 General
3.2 Definitions
3.3 The Electrical Area Classification
4 CHOICE OF PUMP TYPE
5 LINE DIAGRAM (PROCESS)
6 LAYOUT
7 SHAFT SEALS
7.1 Selection
7.2 Engineering of Seals
8 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
8.1 General
8.2 Effects of Low Density
9 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
9.1 Process Wetted Parts
9.2 Mechanical Components
9.3 Non Metallic’s
APPENDIX A - BARNARD & WEIR SEAL THEORY FIGURES
1 VAPOR PRESSURE OF HYDROCARBONS
2 VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS
3 VAPOR PRESSURE OF GASOLINES
4 SPECIFIC HEAT OF HYDROCARBON LIQUIDS
5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OLEFINE, DI OLEFINES AND PARAFFINS
6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AROMATICS
7 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR PARAFFINS, AROMATICS
AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
8 VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART FOR MINERAL LUBRICATING
OILS
TABLES
1 PURE HYDROCARBON PROPERTIES
2A CRUDE OILS PROPERTIES
2B NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF CRUDE OIL, NAPHTHAS AND KEROSENE
2C NINIAN: PROPERTIES OF GAS OILS AND RESIDUES
3 PURE HYROCARBON FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat ExchangersGerard B. Hawkins
Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CONSTRUCTION
5 HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
6 FOULING
7 MECHANICAL AND MATERIALS ASPECTS
8 COMPACTNESS
9 FLEXIBILITY
10 COST
11 GBHE EXPERIENCE 5
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP IN
WAVY PASSAGES
Design and Rating of Packed Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
5 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEES
6 DESCRIPTION OF PACKED COLUMN INTERNALS
7. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Selection of Packing Size
7.2 Rough Design
7.3 Detailed Design and Rating
8 LIQUID DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION
8.1 Basic Concepts
8.2 Pour Point Density
8.3 Peripheral Irrigation - the Wall Zone
8.4 Distributor Levelness
8.5 Maximum Bed Height and Liquid Redistribution
9 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PACKED COLUMN DESIGN
9.1 Packing
9.2 Support Grid
9.3 Liquid Collector
9.4 Liquid Distributor or Redistributor
9.5 Packing Hold-down Grid
9.6 Reflux or Feed Pipe
9.7 Reboil Return Pipe
9.8 Liquid Draw-offs
9.9 Vapor Draw-offs
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
A DEFINITIONS
A.1 INTRODUCTION
A.2 MECHANICAL DEFINITIONS
A.3 PERFORMANCE DEFINITIONS
B PACKING HYDRAULICS - THE NORTON METHOD
TABLES
1 PACKING FACTORS FOR THE MORE COMMON
RANDOM PACKINGS
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian FluidsGerard B. Hawkins
Pipeline Design for Isothermal, Laminar Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF PURELY VISCOUS
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
4.1 Experimental Characterization
4.2 Rheological Models
5 PRESSURE DROP-FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS
BASED DIRECTLY ON EXPERIMENTAL DATA
5.1 Use of Shear Stress – Shear Rate Data
5.2 Tubular Viscometer Data
6 PRESSURE DROP – FLOW RATE RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON RHEOLOGICAL MODELS
7 LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS
7.1 Entrances Losses
7.2 Expansion Effects
7.3 Contraction Losses
7.4 Valves
7.5 Bends
8 EFFECT OF WALL SLIP
9 VELOCITY PROFILES
9.1 Velocity Profile from Experimental Flow-Curve
9.2 Velocity Profile from Rheological Model
9.3 Residence Time Distribution
10 CHECKS ON THE VALIDITY OF THE
DESIGN PROCEDURES
10.1 Rheological Behavior
10.2 Validity of Experimental Data
10.2 Check on Laminar Flow
11 NOMENCLATURE
12 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 FLOW CURVES FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
2 PLOTS OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 32Q/ɳD3 FOR PURELY VISCOUS FLUIDS
3 LOG-LOG PLOT OF t VERSUS ý
4 FLOW CURVE FOR A BINGHAM PLASTIC
5 LOG-LOG PLOT FOR A GENERALIZED BINGHAM
PLASTIC
6 CORRELATION OF ENTRANCE LOSS
7 CORRELATION OF EXPANSION LOSS
8 EFFECT OF “WALL SLIP” ON VELOCITY PROFILE
9 D∆P/4L VERSUS Q/ɳR3 WITH WALL SLIP
10 EVALUATION OFUs WITH Ʈw
11 VARIATION OF Us WITH Ʈw
12 PLOT OF D∆P/4L VERSUS 8 (ū- Us)/D FOR
CONDITIONS OF WALL SLIP
13 CUMULATIVE RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
TO POWER LAW FLUIDS
14 EFFECTS OF TUBE LENGTH AND DIAMETER ON
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN D∆P/4L AND 32Q/ɳD3
Gas Mixing
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
PLUG FLOW
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GAS MIXING:
BACKMIXED INITIAL ZONE
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fouling Resistances for Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL
5 COOLING WATER FOULING
6 CHROMATE SYSTEMS
6.1 General
6.2 Constraints
6.3 Requirements
6.4 Fouling resistances
7 NON-CHROMATE SYSTEMS
7.1 General
7.2 Requirements and Constraints
7.3 Fouling resistances
8 UNTREATED COOLING WATER
9 MATERIALS OTHER THAN MILD STEEL
APPENDICES
A FOULING RESISTANCES FOR COOLING WATER
B FOULING FILM THICKNESS
Integration of Reciprocating Metering Pumps Into A ProcessGerard B. Hawkins
Integration of Reciprocating Metering Pumps into a Process
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PRELIMINARY CHOICE OF PUMP
SECTION A - TYPE/FLOW/PRESSURE/SPEED RATING
Al Pumping Pressure
A2 Pump Flowrate and Capacity
A3 Guide to Pump Speed & Type
A4 Metering Criteria
A5 Pressure Pulsation
A6 Over Delivery
SECTION B - INLET CONDITIONS
B1 Calculation of Basic NPSH
B2 Correction for Frictional Head
B3 Correction for Acceleration Head
B4 Calculation of Available NPSH
B5 Corrections to NPSH for Fluid Properties
B6 Estimation of NPSH Required
B7 Priming
SECTION C - POWER RATING
C1 Pump Efficiency
C2 Calculation of Absorbed Power
C3 Determination of Driver Power Rating
SECTION D - CASING PRESSURE RATING
Dl Calculation of Maximum Discharge Pressure
D2 Discharge Pressure Relief Rating
D3 Calculation of Pump Head Outlet Losses
D4 Casing Hydrostatic Test Pressure
APPENDICES
A RELIABILITY CLASSIFICATION
FIGURES
A3.1 ESTIMATE OF CRANK SPEED
A3.3 SELECTION OF PUMPING HEAD TYPE
B5.1 ESTIMATE OF VISCOSITY OF FINE SUSPENSIONS
B6 ESTIMATE OF NPSH REQUIRED
C1.1 GRAPH - VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY VS MEAN DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
This document provides an overview of cooling water problems and solutions. It discusses common issues like scaling, corrosion, and biological growth that result from poor water quality. The document then covers critical water parameters like conductivity, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and saturation index. It explains different types of scale and methods to control scale, such as water softening, pH adjustment, controlling concentration cycles, and chemical treatment. The focus is on maintaining water quality to prevent problems and reduce maintenance costs for cooling systems.
This document discusses cooling water treatment at a fertilizer plant in India. It provides details on the plant's cooling towers and water chemistry parameters. Cooling water treatment is needed to prevent corrosion, scaling, and microbial fouling of the system. Common issues like corrosion, scaling, and biofouling are discussed along with the mechanisms of corrosion inhibition, scale inhibition, and microbial control through chemical treatment.
This document discusses cooling water analysis and treatment. It covers topics like pH adjustment using sulfuric acid to control scaling, the effects of high pH like increased microbial growth, how much acid is required, chlorine dosing to lower pH and kill bacteria, chlorine demand, factors affecting corrosion like chlorides and stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel, and corrosion inhibition using phosphates. Maintaining the proper delta phosphate is important to control corrosion.
This document discusses cooling water problems such as corrosion, scale, fouling, and microbiological contamination. It explains the causes and factors that influence these problems, as well as methods to control and prevent each problem. Key topics covered include the corrosion process, scale formation mechanisms, types of fouling, factors influencing microbial growth, and chemical treatment options for control and prevention.
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature.
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers.
Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures (as in the adjacent image) that can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. The hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants,[1] although they are also used to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning.
The document discusses cooling towers, including:
1. Types of cooling towers like natural draft, mechanical draft, forced draft, induced draft, cross flow and counter flow towers.
2. Parameters for assessing cooling tower performance including range, approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity.
3. Energy efficiency opportunities like selecting an appropriately sized tower, using efficient fill media to reduce pumping needs, and optimizing fans and motors.
The document provides details of a cooling tower renovation project at a fertilizer plant. Key points:
- The existing cooling tower packing, drift eliminators, and nozzles needed replacement as their working life had expired after 7-10 years.
- Modifications included installing new packing, drift eliminators, dynamic Ecojet nozzles, and a vibration monitoring system.
- The project was completed on time and under budget using mostly local labor. It is expected to improve cooling tower performance and reliability.
- Lessons learned include using local labor for most tasks and marking scaffolding pipes to streamline future work. The renovation reduced circulating water temperature ranges and approach.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Using Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 HTFS
3.2 TEMA
4 CHECKLIST
5 QUALITY OF COOLING WATER
6 COOLING WATER ON SHELL SIDE OR TUBE SIDE
7 COOLING WATER ON THE SHELL SIDE
7.1 Baffle Spacing
7.2 Impingement Plates
7.3 Horizontal or Vertical Shell Orientation
7.4 Baffle Cut Orientation
7.5 Sludge Blowdown
7.6 Removable Bundles
8 FOULING RESISTANCES AND LIMITING TEMPERATURES
9 PRESSURE DROP
9.1 Pressure Drop Restrictions
9.2 Fouling and Pressure Drop
9.3 Elevation of a Heat Exchanger in the Plant
10 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
11 WATER VELOCITY
11.1 Low Water Velocity
11.1.1 Tube Side Water Flow
11.1.2 Shell Side Water Flow
11.2 High Water Velocity
12 ECONOMICS
13 DIRECTION OF WATER FLOW
14 VENTS AND DRAINS
15 CONTROL
15.1 Operating Variables
15.2 Heat Load Control
15.2.1 General
15.2.2 Heat load control by varying cooling water flow
15.3 Orifice Plates
16 MAINTENANCE
Filtration
0 INTRODUCTION
1 The Theory Underlying Filtration Processes
1.1 The Mechanism of Simple Filtration Systems
1.1.2 Cake Filtration
1.1.3 Complete Blocking
1.1.4 Standard Blocking
1.1.5 Intermediate Blocking
1.2 Cake Filtration – Models and Mechanisms
1.2.1 Classical Theory for the Permeability of Porous Cakes and Beds
1.2.2 The Rate of Filtration through a Compressible Cake – The Standard Filtration Equation
1.2.3 The Compression or Consolidation of Filter Cakes – Ultimate degree of dewatering
1.2.4 The Rate of Consolidation
1.2.5 Useful Semi-Empirical Relations for Constant Pressure and Constant Rate Cake Filtration
1.2.6 Constant Pressure Filtration
1.2.7 Constant Rate Filtration
1.2.8 Multiphase Theory of Filtration
1.3 Crossflow Filtration
2 The Range and Selection of Filtration Equipment Technology
2.1 Scale
2.2 Solids Recovery, Liquids Clarification or Feed stream Concentration
2.3 Rate of Sedimentation
2.4 Rate of Cake Formation and Drainage
2.5 Batch vs Continuous Operation
2.6 Solids Loading
2.7 Further Processing
2.8 Aseptic or “Hygienic” Operation
2.9 Miscellaneous
2.10 Shear versus Compressional Deformation
2.11 Pressure versus Vacuum
3 Suspension Conditioning Prior to Filtration
3.1 Simple Filtration Aids
3.2 Mechanical Treatments
4 Post-Filtration Treatments and Further Downstream Processing
4.1 Washing
4.1.1 Air-Blowing
4.1.2 Drying
5 Testing and Characterization of Suspensions
5.1 Introduction – Suspension
5.2 Properties relevant to Filtration Performance
5.2.1 Pre-Filtration Properties of Suspension
5.2.2 Properties of Filter Cake
5.2.3 Laboratory Scale Filtration Rigs
5.3 Means of Monitoring Flocculant Dosage
5.4 Filter Cake Testing
5.4.1 Strength Testing (See also piston press described earlier)
5.4.2 Cake Permeability or Resistance
5.4.3 Rate of Cake Formation
6 Examples of the Application of the Forgoing Principles
6.1 Dewatering of Calcium Carbonate Slurries
6.2 Dewatering of Organic Products – Procion Dyestuffs
6.3 Filtration of Biological Systems – Harvesting a Filamentous Organism
References
Tables
Figures
Large Water Pumps
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
SECTION ONE: INTEGRATION OF PUMPS INTO THE PROCESS
2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2.1 Cooling Water
2.2 Brine
2.3 Estuary Water
2.4 Harbor Water
2.5 Oil-field water
3 CALCULATION OF DUTY
4 CHOICE OF TYPE AND NUMBER OF PUMPS
4.1 Type of Pump
4.2 Points to Consider
4.3 Number of Pumps
5 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM
5.1 Check List for Each Pump
6 RECOMMENDED LAYOUT
SECTION TWO: CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
7 HORIZONTAL, AXIALLY SPLIT CASING PUMPS
7.1 Pressure Casing
7.2 Bolting
7.3 Flanges and Connections
7.4 Rotating Elements
7.5 Wear Rings
7.6 Running Clearances
7.7 Mechanical Seals
7.8 Packed Glands
7.9 Bearings and Bearing Housings
7.10 Lubrication
7.11 Couplings
7.12 Guards
7.13 Baseplates
7.14 Flywheels
8 VERTICAL PUMPS
8.1 General
8.2 Pressure Casing
8.3 Bolting
8.4 Flanges and Connections
8.5 Rotating Element
8.6 Packed Glands
8.7 Bearings and Bearing Housings
8.8 Pump Head
8.9 Column Pipes
8.10 Line Shaft and Couplings
8.11 Reverse Rotation
8.12 Gearboxes
9 MATERIALS
9.1 Castings
9.2 Casings
9.3 Impellers
9.4 Shafts
9.5 Shaft Sleeves
9.6 Bolts and Nuts
10 DRIVERS
10.1 Electric Motor Drives
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES:
A COOLING WATER - EUROPEAN SITE
B TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY
C FLYWHEEL INERTIA FOR PRESSURE SURGE ABATEMENT
D RESIN COATING OF CASINGS FOR WATER PUMPS
E AREA RATIO METHOD
F NOTES ON PUMP IMPELLERS CASTINGS
G LIMIT ON SHAFT DIAMETER FOR HORIZONTAL PUMPS HAVING
ONE DOUBLE-ENTRY IMPELLER SUPPORTED BETWEEN BEARINGS
H FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ON RISING MAIN ASSEMBLY
I POWER COSTS
J PUTATIVE COST COMPARISON SHEET
K TECHNICAL COMPARISON SHEETS
FIGURES
2.1 VAPOR TEMPERATURE CURVES
2.2 DENSITY TEMPERATURE CURVES
3.1 TYPICAL HEAD OF PUMPS
3.2 TOTAL HEAD OF VERTICAL IMMERSED PUMP
3.3 TYPICAL TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY LEVELS
3.5 SUBMERGENCE LIMITS
4.1 TYPES OF PUMP
4.2 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
5.1 TYPICAL LINE DIAGRAM
6 GUIDE TO SUCTION PIPEWORK DESIGN
7 CASING AND IMPELLER DETAILS
8.1 DRY WELL AND WET WELL PUMP INSTALLATIONS
8.2 BELLMOUTH DIMENSIONS FOR VERTICAL INTAKES
8.3 MAXIMUM SPACING BETWEEN SHAFT GUIDE BUSHING
8.4 LINE SHAFT COUPLING
9 TYPICAL VOLUTE CASING
10 TYPICAL CASE WEAR RINGS
11 SEAL AREA
TABLES
1 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (25% W/W)
2 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (20% W/W)
3 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (16.25% W/W)
4 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (15% W/W)
5 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (10% W/W)
6 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (5% W/W)
7 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
8 RECOMMENDED CAST MATERIALS FOR USE IN THE PUMP INDUSTRY
GRAPHS
1 GUIDE TO ROTOR INERTIA
2 LIMITS BETWEEN BEARINGS
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DESIGN GUIDE
Hydrogen Compressors
Engineering Design Guide
1 SCOPE
2 PHYSICAL ROPERTIES
2.1 Data for Pure Hydrogen
2.2 Influence of Impurities
3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Hydrogen from Electrolytic Cells
3.2 Pure Hydrogen
4 DESIGN
4.1 Pulsation
4.2 Bypass
5 TESTING OR COMMISSIONING RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
6 LUBRICATION
7 LAYOUT
8 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 MOLLIER CHART - HYDROGEN
2 COMPRESSIBILITY CHART
3 NELSON DIAGRAM
4 WATER CONTENT IN HYDROGEN FOR OIL-LUBRICATED COMPRESSORS AS GRAMM/M2 SWEPT CYLINDER AREA
This document provides guidance on implementing procedures for managing critical pressure systems as outlined in PEG 4. It covers the design, manufacture, repair, modification and periodic examination of pressure vessels, piping systems, and pressure relief streams. Key requirements include using recognized standards, qualified personnel, design verification, registration of equipment, and periodic inspections to ensure safety. The document is intended to support the development of detailed local engineering procedures for managing pressure equipment over its lifecycle.
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF A...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS ORGANIC EFFLUENT STREAMS
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 IPU
3.2 AOS
3.3 BODs
3.4 COD
3.5 TOC
3.6 Toxicity
3.7 Refractory Organics/Hard COD
3.8 Heavy Metals
3.9 EA
3.10 Biological Treatment Terms
3.11 BATNEEC
3.12 BPEO
3.13 EQS/LV
3.14 IPC
3.15 VOC
3.16 F/M Ratio
3.17 MLSS
3.18 MLVSS
4 DESIGN/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES
5 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
5.1 General
5.2 Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
5.3 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
5.4 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
5.5 Environmental Quality Standards(EQS)
6 IPU EXIT CONCENTRATION
7 SITE/LOCAL REQUIREMENTS
8 PROCESS SELECTION PROCEDURE
8.1 Waste Minimization Techniques (WMT)
8.2 AOS Stream Definition
8.3 Technical Check List
8.4 Preliminary Selection of Suitable Technologies
8.5 Process Sequences
8.6 Economic Evaluation
8.7 Process Selection
APPENDICES
A DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 1
B DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 2
C THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION PRIORITY CANDIDATE LIST
D THE UK RED LIST
E CURRENT VALUES FOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS AND CORRESPONDING LIMIT VALUES
F ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES
G EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
H PROPRIETARY/LESS COMMON TECHNOLOGIES
J COMPARATIVE COST DATA
Mixing of Immiscible Liquids
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 EQUIPMENT
4.1 Agitated Tanks
4.2 Flow Mixers
4.3 'High Shear' Mixers
5 SYSTEM PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
5.1 Density
5.2 Viscosity
5.3 Interfacial Tension
6 STIRRED VESSELS
6.1 Design for Complete Dispersion
6.2 Prediction of Phase Inversion
6.3 Design for Mass Transfer
6.4 Design for Dispersed Phase Mixing
6.5 Hold-Up in Continuous Vessels
7 FLOW MIXERS
7.1 Design for Turbulent Conditions
7.2 Design for Laminar Conditions
TABLES
1 REYNOLDS NUMBER RANGES
FIGURES
1 STANDARD TANK CONFIGURATION
2 EXPERIMENTAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND POWER DENSITY
This document provides guidance on designing pipelines for turbulent flow of non-Newtonian fluids. It describes anomalous effects like wall slip and drag reduction that can occur. The guidance covers design procedures for calculating pressure drop in turbulent pipe flow without and with drag reduction from polymeric materials or fiber suspensions. Key steps include determining transition delay and accounting for pipe roughness and fittings. The intended audience is process engineers at GBH Enterprises.
Solid Catalyzed Gas Phase Reactor Selection
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 ADIABATIC REACTORS
4.1 Single Bed Reactors
4.2 Divided Bed Reactors
4.3 Moving Bed Reactors
4.4 Radial Flow Reactors
5 NON ADIABATIC REACTORS
5.1 Tubular Reactor with External Heating/Cooling
5.2 Tube Cooled Reactors
5.3 Autothermal Reactors
5.4 Hot/Cold Shot Reactors
5.5 Divided Bed Reactors with Intercooling
5.6 Radial Flow Reactors with Intercooling
5.7 Fluid Bed Reactors
6 NOTES ON USING REACTOR SELECTION
GUIDE (TABLE 1)
TABLE
1 REACTOR SELECTION GUIDE
FIGURES
1 TUBULAR REACTOR: EXAMPLE OF CATALYST IN ANNULAR TUBES COOLED BY STEAM RAISING
2 AUTOTHERMAL REACTOR: CATALYST BED COOLED BY INFLOWING GAS IN TUBES
3 COLD SHOT CONVERTER: FIXED ADIABATIC BEDS WITH INTERBED QUENCH GAS MIXING
0 INTRODUCTION
The four main sources of Fugitive Emissions on most plants are valves, machine seals, re-makable joints and pressure relief devices. Other possible sources include open-ended lines, sampling connections, drains and vents.
Sometimes special precautions are taken to minimize Fugitive Emissions, for example the use of bellows seal valves. However, generally no special precautions are taken and the subsequent Fugitive Emissions to atmosphere represent a significant amount of plant losses.
Regulatory requirements covering Fugitive Emissions exist in many countries and therefore a leak reduction program should be implemented. Fugitive Emissions also represent financial losses to the business as well as potential damage to the environment.
Heating and Cooling of Batch Processes
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHOD
5.1 Assumptions
5.2 Basic Equations
6 APPLICATION OF THE METHOD
6.1 Determining the Behavior of an Existing System
6.2 Specifying the Heat Transfer Duty for a New System
APPENDICES
A DERIVATION OF THE EQUATIONS
B WORKED EXAMPLES
FIGURES
1 CASES CONSIDERED
"SEDIMENTATION"
INTRODUCTION - THE PHENOMENON OF SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the physical process whereby solid particles, of greater density than their suspending medium, will tend to separate into regions of higher concentration under the influence of gravity. As a solids/liquids separation technique it therefore possesses the great advantage of utilizing a natural, and therefore costless, driving force. This section of the suspension processing Guide is Intended to provide an Introduction to the science of the subject, and the means to judge where and how best to exploit sedimentation as a separation (or other processing) technique.
As a scientific discipline the subject of sedimentation is vast with perspectives ranging from the field of chemical engineering through to theoretical physics being covered In the literature [1-11]. Good reviews of the subject, with a bias towards the engineering aspects, have been written by Fitch and Koz [12, 13]. A short summary of some of the more relevant contributions from the literature is also provided in GBHE-SPG-PEG-302 “Basic Principles & Test Methods”, of the Suspensions Processing Guides.
.
The sedimentation process is traditionally divided into ..."
Temperature excursions in hydrogenation reactors may have several causes, the most common ones being:-
i) Loss of recycle quench system. This could be either the liquid or gas stream. The condition is made worse if the make-up gas keeps flowing.
ii) Excessive temperatures. The loss of cooling medium ........
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon ReboilersGerard B. Hawkins
The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 THE DESIGN PROBLEM
5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
6 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 Heating Medium Temperature
6.2 Fouling Resistance
7 DESIGN PARAMETERS
7.1 Overall Arrangement and Specifications
7.2 Geometry Elements
8 ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE
PROGRAM RESULTS
8.1 Main Results
8.2 Supplementary Results
8.3 Error Analysis
8.4 Adjustments to Design
9 OPERATING RANGE
10 CONTROL
10.1 Control of Condensing Heating Medium Pressure
10.2 Control of The Condensate Level
10.3 Control of Sensible Fluid Flow Rate
11 LAYOUT
11.1 Factors Influencing Design
11.2 A Standard Layout
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Low Alloy and Austenitic Stainl...Gerard B. Hawkins
Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Low Alloy and Austenitic Stainless Steels in Chloride and Caustic Environments
SYNOPSIS
This Maintenance Best Practice Guide is concerned with the performance of carbon and low alloy steels, and austenitic stainless steels, in chloride and caustic containing fluids. Those factors which are known to promote stress corrosion cracking are outlined, and service charts defining environmental boundaries for stress corrosion cracking in caustic and chloride containing fluids are presented.
General guidance on the avoidance of stress corrosion cracking is provided.
Similar to General Water Treatment For Cooling Water (20)
Pressure Relief Systems Vol 2
Causes of Relief Situations
This Volume 2 is a guide to the qualitative identification of common causes of overpressure in process equipment. It cannot be exhaustive; the process engineer and relief systems team should look for any credible situation in addition to those given in this Part which could lead to a need for pressure relief (a relief situation).
This document provides guidelines for engineering design of pressure relief systems. It discusses key principles such as identifying potential overpressure and underpressure causes, sizing relief systems to prevent hazards, and safely disposing of relieved materials. The guidelines cover statutory requirements, recommended design procedures, and documentation standards. The overall goal is to preserve equipment integrity and prevent failure from over or under pressure during all process phases.
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy GasesGerard B. Hawkins
GAS DISPERSION - A Definitive Guide to Accidental Releases of Heavy Gases
This Process Safety Guide has been written with the aim of assisting process engineers, hazard analysts and environmental advisers in carrying out gas dispersion calculations. The Guide aims to provide assistance by:
• Improving awareness of the range of dispersion models available within GBHE, and providing guidance in choosing the most appropriate model for a particular application.
• Providing guidance to ensure that source terms and other model inputs are correctly specified, and the models are used within their range of applicability.
• Providing guidance to deal with particular topics in gas dispersion such as dense gas dispersion, complex terrain, and modeling the chemistry of oxides of nitrogen.
• Providing general background on air quality and dispersion modeling issues such as meteorology and air quality standards.
• Providing example calculations for real practical problems.
SCOPE
The gas dispersion guide contains the following Parts:
1 Fundamentals of meteorology.
2 Overview of air quality standards.
3 Comparison between different air quality models.
4 Designing a stack.
5 Dense gas dispersion.
6 Calculation of source terms.
7 Building wake effects.
8 Overview of the chemistry of the oxides of nitrogen.
9 Overview of the ADMS complex terrain module.
10 Overview of the ADMS deposition module.
11 ADMS examples.
12 Modeling odorous releases.
13 Bibliography of useful gas dispersion books and reports.
14 Glossary of gas dispersion modeling terms.
Appendix A : Modeling Wind Generation of Particulates.
APPENDIX B TABLE OF PROPERTY VALUES FOR SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
101 Things That Can Go Wrong on a Primary Reformer - Best Practices GuideGerard B. Hawkins
This document discusses common problems that can occur in primary reformers and associated equipment. It identifies issues that can lead to plant shutdowns or efficiency losses, grouping them under catalysts, tubes, furnace boxes, burners, flue gas ducts, headers, and refractories. Some examples discussed include carbon formation, tube overheating, flame impingement, leaks in air preheaters, combustion air maldistribution, and damage to coffins. The document provides an overview of these issues to improve plant reliability over its lifespan.
El impacto en el rendimiento del catalizador por envenenamiento y ensuciamien...Gerard B. Hawkins
El documento describe los procesos de refinería y catalizadores, así como los efectos del envenenamiento y ensuciamiento en el rendimiento de los catalizadores. El envenenamiento reduce la actividad de los catalizadores al bloquear los sitios activos o modificar la química de la superficie, lo que afecta la actividad y selectividad. Los niveles bajos de contaminantes tienen un mayor impacto en catalizadores con menor área de superficie. El envenenamiento también puede causar cambios estructurales en el catalizador y permitir
Theory of Carbon Formation in Steam Reforming
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Underpinning Theory
2.1 Conceptualization
2.2 Reforming Reactions
2.3 Carbon Formation Chemistry
2.3.1 Natural Gas
2.3.2 Carbon Formation for Naphtha Feeds
2.3.3 Carbon Gasification
2.4 Heat Transfer
3 Causes
3.1 Effects of Carbon Formation
3.2 Types of Carbon
4 What are the Effects of Carbon Formation?
4.1 Why does Carbon Formation Get Worse?
4.1.1 So what is the Next Step?
4.2 Consequences of Carbon Formation
4.3 Why does Carbon Form where it does?
4.3.1 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
4.4 Why does Carbon Formation Propagate Down the Tube?
4.4.1 Effect on Radiation on the Fluegas Side
4.5 Why does Carbon Formation propagate Up the Tube?
5 How do we Prevent Carbon Formation
5.1 The Role of Potash
5.2 Inclusion of Pre-reformer
5.3 Primary Reformer Catalyst Parameters
5.3.1 Activity
5.3.2 Heat Transfer
5.3.3 Increased Steam to Carbon Ratio
6 Steam Out
6.1 Why does increasing the Steam to Carbon Ratio Not Work?
6.2 Why does reducing the Feed Rate not help?
6.3 Fundamental Principles of Steam Outs
TABLES
1 Heat Transfer Coefficients in a Typical Reformer
2 Typical Catalyst Loading Options
FIGURES
1 Hot Bands
2 Conceptual Pellet
3 Naphtha Carbon Formation
4 Heat Transfer within an Reformer
5 Types of Carbon Formation
6 Effect of Carbon on Nickel Crystallites
7 Absorption of Heat
8 Comparison of "Base Case" v Carbon Forming Tube
9 Carbon Formation Vicious Circle
10 Temperature Profiles
11 Carbon Pinch Point
12 Carbon Formation
13 Effect on Process Gas Temperature
14 How does Carbon Propagate into an Unaffected Zone?
15 Movement of the Carbon Forming Region
16 Effect of Hot Bands on Radiative Heat Transfer
17 Effect of Potash on Carbon Formation
18 Application of a Pre-reformer
19 Effect of Activity on Carbon Formation
Adiabatic Reactor Analysis for Methanol Synthesis Plant Note Book Series: P...Gerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses adiabatic reactor analysis for methanol synthesis from syngas. It provides the reaction kinetics and calculates conversion, temperature, and reactor volume needed at different conversions. Energy and mass balances are used to derive relationships between conversion, temperature and reaction rate. Data is generated to plot conversion versus volumetric flow rate for reactor sizing. The plot indicates a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) could achieve 85% conversion before switching to a plug flow reactor (PFR) for higher conversion with less volume.
STEAMING PROCEDURE FOR VULCAN STEAM REFORMING CATALYSTSGerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses procedures for steaming Vulcan steam reforming catalysts to recover from sulfur poisoning and carbon formation incidents. It describes maintaining steam flow at 30-40% of design levels and an outlet temperature above 780°C. Gas samples should be taken hourly to monitor CO2, CH4, H2S and SO2. Steaming is complete when CO2 levels stabilize over 2-3 samples after increasing the temperature. The process typically takes 12-24 hours to complete and closely monitors pressure drop and tube conditions. After steaming, the catalyst requires reduction before restarting hydrocarbon feed.
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
GBHE-APT-0102
PICKLING & PASSIVATION
CONTENTS
1 PURPOSE OF THE WORK
2 CHEMICAL CONCEPT
3 TECHNICAL CONCEPT
4 WASTES & SAFETY CONCEPT
5 TARGET RESULTS
6 THE GENERAL CLEANING SEQUENCE MANAGEMENT
6.6.1 Pre-cleaning or “Physical Cleaning
6.6.2 Pre-rinsing
6.6.3 Chemical Cleaning
6.6.4 Critical Factors in Cleaning Success
6.6.5 Rinsing
6.6.6 Inspection and Re-Cleaning, if Necessary
7 Systems to be treated by Pickling/Passivation
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS Gerard B. Hawkins
DESIGN OF VENT GAS COLLECTION AND DESTRUCTION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope of this Guide
1.3 Use of the Guide
2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
2.1 Principal Concerns
2.2 Mechanisms for Ozone Formation
2.3 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
2.4 Health and Environmental Effects
2.5 Air Quality Standards for Ground Level Concentrations of Ozone, Targets for Reduction of VOC Discharges and Statutory Discharge Limits
3 VENTS REDUCTION PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Reduction at Source
3.2 End-of-pipe Treatment
4 METHODOLOGY FOR COLLECTION & ASSESSMENT OF PROCESS FLOW DATA
4.1 General
4.2 Identification of Vent Sources
4.3 Characterization of Vents
4.4 Quantification of Process Vent Flows
4.5 Component Flammability Data Collection
4.6 Identification of Operating Scenarios
4.7 Quantification of Flammability Characteristics for Combined Vents
4.8 Identification, Quantification and Assessment of Possibility of Air Ingress Routes
4.9 Tabulation of Data
4.10 Hazard Study and Risk Assessment
4.11 Note on Aqueous / Organic Wastes
4.12 Complexity of Systems
4.13 Summary
5 SAFE DESIGN OF VENT COLLECTION HEADER SYSTEMS
5.1 General
5.2 Process Design of Vent Headers
5.3 Liquid in Vent Headers
5.4 Materials of Construction
5.5 Static Electricity Hazard
5.6 Diversion Systems
5.7 Snuffing Systems
6 SAFE DESIGN OF THERMAL OXIDISERS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Basis
6.3 Types of High Temperature Thermal Oxidizer
6.4 Refractories
6.5 Flue Gas Treatment
6.6 Control and Safety Systems
6.7 Project Program
6.8 Commissioning
6.9 Operational and Maintenance Management
APPENDICES
A GLOSSARY
B FLAMMABILITY
C EXAMPLE PROFORMA
D REFERENCES
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS GUIDE
TABLE
1 PHOTOCHEMICAL OZONE CREATION POTENTIAL REFERENCED
TO ETHYLENE AS UNITY
FIGURES
1 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL VENT COLLECTION AND THERMAL OXIDIZER SYSTEM
2 TYPICAL KNOCK-OUT POT WITH LUTED DRAIN
3 SCHEMATIC OF DIVERSION SYSTEM
4 CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL THERMAL OXIDIZER
5 CONVENTIONAL OXIDIZER WITH INTEGRAL WATER SPARGER
6 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH STAGED AIR INJECTION
7 DOWN-FIRED UNIT WITH WATER BATH QUENCH
8 FLAMELESS THERMAL OXIDATION UNIT
9 THERMAL OXIDIZER WITH REGENERATIVE HEAT RECOVERY
10 TYPICAL PROJECT PROGRAM
11 TYPICAL FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
12 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR
13 EFFECT OF DILUTION WITH AIR ON 100 Rm³ OF FLAMMABLE GAS
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGA...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE NEED FOR VOC CONTROL
3 CONTROL AT SOURCE
3.1 Choice or Solvent
3.2 Venting Arrangements
3.3 Nitrogen Blanketing
3.4 Pump Versus Pneumatic Transfer
3.5 Batch Charging
3.6 Reduction of Volumetric Flow
3.7 Stock Tank Design
4 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
4.1 By Inference or Calculation
4.2 Flow Monitoring Equipment
4.3 Analytical Instruments
4.4 Vent Emissions Database
5 ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Available Options
5.2 Selection of Preferred Option
5.3 Condensation
5.4 Adsorption
5.5 Absorption
5.6 Thermal Incineration
5.7 Catalytic Oxidation
5.8 Biological Filtration
5.9 Combinations of Process technologies
5.10 Processes Under Development
6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
7 REFERENCES
Appendix 1. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials
Appendix 2. Examples of Adsorption Preliminary Calculations
Appendix 3. Example of Thermal Incineration Heat and Mass Balance
Appendix 4. Cost Correlations
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen PlantGerard B. Hawkins
Getting the Most Out of Your Refinery Hydrogen Plant
Contents
Summary
1 Introduction
2 "On-purpose" Hydrogen Production
3 Operational Aspects
4 Uprating Options on the Steam Reformer
4.1 Steam Reforming Catalysts and Tube Metallurgy
4.2 Oxygen-blown Secondary Reformer
4.3 Pre-reforming
4.4 Post-reforming
5 Downstream Units
6 Summary of Uprating Options
7 Conclusions
EMERGENCY ISOLATION OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 When should Emergency Isolation Valves be Installed
3 Emergency Isolation Valves and Associated Equipment
3.1 Installations on existing plant
3.2 Actuators
3.3 Power to close or power to open
3.4 The need for testing
3.5 Hand operated Emergency Valves
3.6 The need to stop pumps in an emergency
3.7 Location of Operating Buttons
3.8 Use of control valves for Isolation
4 Detection of Leaks and Fires
5 Precautions during Maintenance
6 Training Operators to use Emergency Isolation Valves
7 Emergency Isolation when no remotely operated valve is available
References
Glossary
Appendix I Some Fires or Serious Escapes of Flammable Gases or Liquids that could have been controlled by Emergency Isolation Valves
Appendix II Some typical Installations
Amine Gas Treating Unit - Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide Gerard B. Hawkins
Amine Gas Treating Unit Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide for H2S/CO2 Amine Systems
Contents
Process Capabilities for gas treating process
Typical Amine Treating
Typical Amine System Improvements
Primary Equipment Overview
Inlet Gas Knockout
Absorber
Three Phase Flash Tank
Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger
Regenerator
Filtration
Amine Reclaimer
Operating Difficulties Overview
Foaming
Failure to Meet Gas Specification
Solvent Losses
Corrosion
Typical Amine System Improvements
Degradation of Amines and Alkanolamines during Sour Gas Treating
APPENDIX
Best Practices - Troubleshooting Guide
Investigation of the Potential Use of (IILs) Immobilized Ionic Liquids in Sha...Gerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses using immobilized ionic liquids (IILs) in shale gas sweetening reactions. It proposes immobilizing a cobalt catalyst in the surface ionic liquid layer of a solid supported ionic liquid catalyst. This would create a "homogeneous catalyst" dissolved within the fixed IIL layer. Competing reactions like oxidation of sulfides to sulfones would need to be considered. Related work on using similar approaches for hydroformylation reactions is referenced. The concept aims to develop a solid IIL catalyst for sweetening reactions involving oxidation using techniques from other areas like hydroformylation.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
zkStudyClub - LatticeFold: A Lattice-based Folding Scheme and its Application...Alex Pruden
Folding is a recent technique for building efficient recursive SNARKs. Several elegant folding protocols have been proposed, such as Nova, Supernova, Hypernova, Protostar, and others. However, all of them rely on an additively homomorphic commitment scheme based on discrete log, and are therefore not post-quantum secure. In this work we present LatticeFold, the first lattice-based folding protocol based on the Module SIS problem. This folding protocol naturally leads to an efficient recursive lattice-based SNARK and an efficient PCD scheme. LatticeFold supports folding low-degree relations, such as R1CS, as well as high-degree relations, such as CCS. The key challenge is to construct a secure folding protocol that works with the Ajtai commitment scheme. The difficulty, is ensuring that extracted witnesses are low norm through many rounds of folding. We present a novel technique using the sumcheck protocol to ensure that extracted witnesses are always low norm no matter how many rounds of folding are used. Our evaluation of the final proof system suggests that it is as performant as Hypernova, while providing post-quantum security.
Paper Link: https://eprint.iacr.org/2024/257
Main news related to the CCS TSI 2023 (2023/1695)Jakub Marek
An English 🇬🇧 translation of a presentation to the speech I gave about the main changes brought by CCS TSI 2023 at the biggest Czech conference on Communications and signalling systems on Railways, which was held in Clarion Hotel Olomouc from 7th to 9th November 2023 (konferenceszt.cz). Attended by around 500 participants and 200 on-line followers.
The original Czech 🇨🇿 version of the presentation can be found here: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hlavni-novinky-souvisejici-s-ccs-tsi-2023-2023-1695/269688092 .
The videorecording (in Czech) from the presentation is available here: https://youtu.be/WzjJWm4IyPk?si=SImb06tuXGb30BEH .
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
Skybuffer AI: Advanced Conversational and Generative AI Solution on SAP Busin...Tatiana Kojar
Skybuffer AI, built on the robust SAP Business Technology Platform (SAP BTP), is the latest and most advanced version of our AI development, reaffirming our commitment to delivering top-tier AI solutions. Skybuffer AI harnesses all the innovative capabilities of the SAP BTP in the AI domain, from Conversational AI to cutting-edge Generative AI and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). It also helps SAP customers safeguard their investments into SAP Conversational AI and ensure a seamless, one-click transition to SAP Business AI.
With Skybuffer AI, various AI models can be integrated into a single communication channel such as Microsoft Teams. This integration empowers business users with insights drawn from SAP backend systems, enterprise documents, and the expansive knowledge of Generative AI. And the best part of it is that it is all managed through our intuitive no-code Action Server interface, requiring no extensive coding knowledge and making the advanced AI accessible to more users.
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success StorySafe Software
Are you ready to revolutionize how you handle data? Join us for a webinar where we’ll bring you up to speed with the latest advancements in Generative AI technology and discover how leveraging FME with tools from giants like Google Gemini, Amazon, and Microsoft OpenAI can supercharge your workflow efficiency.
During the hour, we’ll take you through:
Guest Speaker Segment with Hannah Barrington: Dive into the world of dynamic real estate marketing with Hannah, the Marketing Manager at Workspace Group. Hear firsthand how their team generates engaging descriptions for thousands of office units by integrating diverse data sources—from PDF floorplans to web pages—using FME transformers, like OpenAIVisionConnector and AnthropicVisionConnector. This use case will show you how GenAI can streamline content creation for marketing across the board.
Ollama Use Case: Learn how Scenario Specialist Dmitri Bagh has utilized Ollama within FME to input data, create custom models, and enhance security protocols. This segment will include demos to illustrate the full capabilities of FME in AI-driven processes.
Custom AI Models: Discover how to leverage FME to build personalized AI models using your data. Whether it’s populating a model with local data for added security or integrating public AI tools, find out how FME facilitates a versatile and secure approach to AI.
We’ll wrap up with a live Q&A session where you can engage with our experts on your specific use cases, and learn more about optimizing your data workflows with AI.
This webinar is ideal for professionals seeking to harness the power of AI within their data management systems while ensuring high levels of customization and security. Whether you're a novice or an expert, gain actionable insights and strategies to elevate your data processes. Join us to see how FME and AI can revolutionize how you work with data!
leewayhertz.com-AI in predictive maintenance Use cases technologies benefits ...alexjohnson7307
Predictive maintenance is a proactive approach that anticipates equipment failures before they happen. At the forefront of this innovative strategy is Artificial Intelligence (AI), which brings unprecedented precision and efficiency. AI in predictive maintenance is transforming industries by reducing downtime, minimizing costs, and enhancing productivity.
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift.pdfTosin Akinosho
Monitoring and Managing Anomaly Detection on OpenShift
Overview
Dive into the world of anomaly detection on edge devices with our comprehensive hands-on tutorial. This SlideShare presentation will guide you through the entire process, from data collection and model training to edge deployment and real-time monitoring. Perfect for those looking to implement robust anomaly detection systems on resource-constrained IoT/edge devices.
Key Topics Covered
1. Introduction to Anomaly Detection
- Understand the fundamentals of anomaly detection and its importance in identifying unusual behavior or failures in systems.
2. Understanding Edge (IoT)
- Learn about edge computing and IoT, and how they enable real-time data processing and decision-making at the source.
3. What is ArgoCD?
- Discover ArgoCD, a declarative, GitOps continuous delivery tool for Kubernetes, and its role in deploying applications on edge devices.
4. Deployment Using ArgoCD for Edge Devices
- Step-by-step guide on deploying anomaly detection models on edge devices using ArgoCD.
5. Introduction to Apache Kafka and S3
- Explore Apache Kafka for real-time data streaming and Amazon S3 for scalable storage solutions.
6. Viewing Kafka Messages in the Data Lake
- Learn how to view and analyze Kafka messages stored in a data lake for better insights.
7. What is Prometheus?
- Get to know Prometheus, an open-source monitoring and alerting toolkit, and its application in monitoring edge devices.
8. Monitoring Application Metrics with Prometheus
- Detailed instructions on setting up Prometheus to monitor the performance and health of your anomaly detection system.
9. What is Camel K?
- Introduction to Camel K, a lightweight integration framework built on Apache Camel, designed for Kubernetes.
10. Configuring Camel K Integrations for Data Pipelines
- Learn how to configure Camel K for seamless data pipeline integrations in your anomaly detection workflow.
11. What is a Jupyter Notebook?
- Overview of Jupyter Notebooks, an open-source web application for creating and sharing documents with live code, equations, visualizations, and narrative text.
12. Jupyter Notebooks with Code Examples
- Hands-on examples and code snippets in Jupyter Notebooks to help you implement and test anomaly detection models.
Dandelion Hashtable: beyond billion requests per second on a commodity serverAntonios Katsarakis
This slide deck presents DLHT, a concurrent in-memory hashtable. Despite efforts to optimize hashtables, that go as far as sacrificing core functionality, state-of-the-art designs still incur multiple memory accesses per request and block request processing in three cases. First, most hashtables block while waiting for data to be retrieved from memory. Second, open-addressing designs, which represent the current state-of-the-art, either cannot free index slots on deletes or must block all requests to do so. Third, index resizes block every request until all objects are copied to the new index. Defying folklore wisdom, DLHT forgoes open-addressing and adopts a fully-featured and memory-aware closed-addressing design based on bounded cache-line-chaining. This design offers lock-free index operations and deletes that free slots instantly, (2) completes most requests with a single memory access, (3) utilizes software prefetching to hide memory latencies, and (4) employs a novel non-blocking and parallel resizing. In a commodity server and a memory-resident workload, DLHT surpasses 1.6B requests per second and provides 3.5x (12x) the throughput of the state-of-the-art closed-addressing (open-addressing) resizable hashtable on Gets (Deletes).
Digital Banking in the Cloud: How Citizens Bank Unlocked Their MainframePrecisely
Inconsistent user experience and siloed data, high costs, and changing customer expectations – Citizens Bank was experiencing these challenges while it was attempting to deliver a superior digital banking experience for its clients. Its core banking applications run on the mainframe and Citizens was using legacy utilities to get the critical mainframe data to feed customer-facing channels, like call centers, web, and mobile. Ultimately, this led to higher operating costs (MIPS), delayed response times, and longer time to market.
Ever-changing customer expectations demand more modern digital experiences, and the bank needed to find a solution that could provide real-time data to its customer channels with low latency and operating costs. Join this session to learn how Citizens is leveraging Precisely to replicate mainframe data to its customer channels and deliver on their “modern digital bank” experiences.
Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process MiningLucaBarbaro3
Presentation of the paper "Trusted Execution Environment for Decentralized Process Mining" given during the CAiSE 2024 Conference in Cyprus on June 7, 2024.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Freshworks Rethinks NoSQL for Rapid Scaling & Cost-EfficiencyScyllaDB
Freshworks creates AI-boosted business software that helps employees work more efficiently and effectively. Managing data across multiple RDBMS and NoSQL databases was already a challenge at their current scale. To prepare for 10X growth, they knew it was time to rethink their database strategy. Learn how they architected a solution that would simplify scaling while keeping costs under control.
Freshworks Rethinks NoSQL for Rapid Scaling & Cost-Efficiency
General Water Treatment For Cooling Water
1. GBH Enterprises, Ltd.
Process Engineering Guide:
GBHE-PEG-UTL-900
General Water Treatment
for Cooling Water
Information contained in this publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is
believed to be accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
good faith, but it is for the User to satisfy itself of the suitability of the information
for its own particular purpose. GBHE gives no warranty as to the fitness of this
information for any particular purpose and any implied warranty or condition
(statutory or otherwise) is excluded except to the extent that exclusion is
prevented by law. GBHE will accept no liability resulting from reliance on this
information. Freedom under Patent, Copyright and Designs cannot be assumed.
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
2. Process Engineering Guide:
General Water Treatment
for Cooling Water
CONTENTS
0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
2
1
SCOPE
2
2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
2
3
DEFINITIONS
2
4
CHOICE OF COOLING SYSTEM
2
4.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
4.2 Open Evaporative Recirculating Systems
4.3 Closed Recirculating Systems
4.4 Comparison of Cooling Systems
2
3
3
3
5
MAKE-UP WATER QUALITY
4
6
FOULING PROCESSES
4
6.1 Deposition
6.2 Scaling
6.3 Corrosion
6.4 Biological Growth
7
CONTROL OF THE COOLING SYSTEM
7.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
7.2 Closed Recirculating Systems
7.3 Open Evaporative Cooling Systems
4
4
4
5
9
9
9
9
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
3. TABLES
1 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF FOULING PROCESSES
AND INSTALLED COSTS
3
2
4
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
FIGURES
1
PREDICTION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE SCALING
6
2
CALCIUM SULFATE SOLUBILITY
7
3
CALCIUM PHOSPHATE SCALING INDEX
8
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS
ENGINEERING GUIDE
11
Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology – Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology – Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com
4. 0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
Fouling in cooling systems occurs by four potential processes, viz:
(a) Crystallization scaling.
(b) Deposition of particulate matter.
(c) Corrosion and subsequent transfer of corrosion deposits.
(d) Microbiological growth.
These processes do not occur in isolation and it is frequently the interaction
between them which results in the worst fouling problems. It is, therefore,
essential to identify the potential sources of each and then choose the best
cooling technology and apply the appropriate control, both mechanical and
chemical, in order to minimize the effects of fouling.
The water treatment required for cooling is determined by three factors:
(a) The cooling process in use.
(b) The make-up water quality.
(c) The control of the cooling tower and chemical dosing system.
It is important to understand how these interact if fouling of cooling systems is to
be avoided. Clauses 4 to 6 describe the important parameters before chemical
treatment is discussed.
1
SCOPE
This Process Engineering Guide discusses the factors influencing the choice of
cooling water system, defines the parameters influencing make-up water quality,
explains the four basic processes of fouling and gives general advice on the
cooling water selected.
This Guide does not cover the design of a treatment system nor does it make
specific quantitative treatment recommendations.
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5. 2
FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Guide applies to process engineers and water technologists in GBH
Enterprises world-wide.
3
DEFINITIONS
The following definition applies to this Guide.
Concentration Ratio
is the ratio of the concentration (e.g. of Mg++) in the
circulating water to that in the make-up water.
4
CHOICE OF COOLING SYSTEM
4.1
'Once through' Cooling Systems
Water is abstracted, used for cooling and then discharged, generally with
a low temperature rise. The high water usage means that a cheap surface
or groundwater has to be used. Pretreatment may be considered when
serious fouling problems due to silt or river muds occur.
Chemical treatment is difficult because of the quantities involved and the
risk to the environment, but some biocidal treatment may be applied to
reduce fouling due to microbiological or animal life. For this reason, heat
exchangers on such systems are generally made of corrosion resistant
materials, at extra cost, and mechanical methods of controlling fouling are
employed.
4.2
Open Evaporative Recirculating Systems
Water is circulated through heat exchangers and then returned to a
cooling tower in which heat is transferred to the atmosphere by
evaporation. The evaporation loss is generally 1 to 2% of the total
recirculating rate.
The cooled water is reused and the water lost by evaporation is replaced
by make-up water, which will inevitably result in increasing mineral
concentration of the water. This can be kept constant by purging a small
amount of water from the system, generally equivalent to less then
half of the evaporative loss. Chemical treatment of the water is economic
when the sum of the purge losses and involuntary losses from leaks, etc.,
amounts to less than the evaporative loss.
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6. While the capital cost of the Open Evaporative system is higher than for
'Once through' systems, the reduced use of water, the reduced
environmental impact, the ability to chemically treat and the removal of the
need to use corrosion resistant materials make this the system of
choice for most applications.
Recent developments in new packing materials have made Open
Evaporative towers even cheaper to purchase, but have brought a new
fouling problem. The plastic packings come in various spacings, from as
little as 12 mm to 38 mm and higher. At the smaller end, there is a
tendency for the fouling deposits to bridge the gap between packing
sheets, which reduces the cooling efficiency of the system significantly. At
this point the packing has to be replaced as, because of the spacing, there
is no way of cleaning it successfully by water jetting and chemicals cannot
penetrate sufficiently to remove the deposits. Good control of the chemical
regime in the recirculating water can ease the use of such packing.
4.3
Closed Recirculating Systems
Water is circulated through heat exchangers and then passed through an
additional set of heat exchangers where the heat is transferred to air or
water. No deliberate loss of water occurs from the closed loop and hence
little or no make-up is required. Chemical treatment can readily
be applied and control of the water chemistry is easy, particularly if
condensate or deionized water is used. This system is used for critical
heat transfer duties or where elevated temperatures are used. Capital
costs are high, however, and some loss in cooling efficiency has to be
borne from using an indirect cooling method. Treatment of the indirect
cooling water has also to be considered, whether from a 'Once through'
system or an Open Recirculating system.
4.4
Comparison of Cooling Systems
Table 1 shows which fouling processes occur in each of the cooling systems
described. The
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7. TABLE 1
5
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF FOULING PROCESSES AND
INSTALLED COSTS
MAKE-UP WATER QUALITY
The "quality" of natural waters can be defined by measurement of the parameters
given in Table 2.
TABLE 2 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
6
FOULING PROCESSES
There are four basic fouling processes which can occur in cooling systems, all of
which can be affected by the quality of the make-up water used. These four
processes are now described.
6.1 Deposition
If the make-up water contains a high turbidity or suspended solids, a high
concentration of organic matter and/or a high alkaline hardness, it may be cost
effective to pretreat. In any case, the worst effects of deposition fouling can be
offset by maintaining water velocities in excess of at least 1 and preferably 2 m/s
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8. 6.2
Scaling
The solubility of "hardness" salts, i.e. calcium and magnesium salts, decreases
with increasing temperature, thus making any cooling duty a potential cause of
scaling for heat transfer surface temperature constraints). For 'Once through'
systems the temperature rise is generally too small for major problems, and
closed systems are limited to the scale potential of the contained water if there is
no make-up. However, Open Evaporative systems are prone
to scaling with the increased mineral concentration due to evaporation. This is
exacerbated if the make-up water is "hard".
The calcium carbonate scale potential of any water can be estimated using either
the Langelier Index or the Ryznar Index (see Figure 1). Calcium sulfate scaling
may be a possibility where sulfuric acid is added to reduce the alkalinity (see
Figure 2). Calcium phosphate scaling may be a problem, particularly with certain
chemical treatments where control is poor or directly due to poor make-up waters
(see Figure 3). Calcium silicate is not usually a problem unless the silica content
of the recirculating water exceeds 150 ppm.
6.3
Corrosion
For hard waters, the high alkalinity and mineral content make the water less
aggressive towards, for example, carbon steel. However, soft waters are
generally low in both alkalinity and mineral content and tend to be far more
corrosive. Some correlation can be gained by using the Langelier or Ryznar
Indices to predict the aggressiveness of the water, and this is the basis of
some control methods, to hold the water at a neutral Index value to minimize
both scaling and corrosion. In general, increasing the mineral content decreases
the corrosiveness; the addition of acid to reduce scale potential increases
corrosiveness.
6.4
Biological Growth
With the exception of closed loop systems, where a one-off shot of biocide may
be sufficient to control biological activity, no cooling system should ever be
considered to be biologically stable, whatever the make-up water quality.
Waterborne or airborne organisms find the warm, aerobic or anaerobic conditions
almost ideal for growth and can very quickly become established, causing major
fouling problems if not controlled.
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9. FIGURE 1 PREDICTION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE SCALING
Calcium carbonate scaling can be predicted qualitatively by the Langelier
Saturation Index or the Ryznor Stability Index. The indices are determined as
follows:
(LSI)
Lagelier Saturation Index = pH (actual) – pHs
(RSI)) Ryznor Stability Index =
2 (pHs) - pH (actual)
(1)
(2)
The value pHs (pH of saturation) is a function of total dissolved solids,
temperature, calcium and alkalinity; pH actual is the measured pH of the water.
A positive LSI indicates a tendency for calcium carbonate to deposit. The RSI
shows the same tendency when a value of 6 or less is calculated.
The pHs value may be calculated from the nomogram in Figure 1.
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10. FIGURE 2 CALCIUM SULFATE SOLUBILITY
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11. FIGURE 3
CALCIUM PHOSPHATE SCALING INDEX
Calcium Phosphate scaling can be predicted by calculation of the Scaling Index
This is a function of Calcium, pH, temperature and also Ortho-phosphate and is
calculated as:
Scaling Index = pH (actual) – pHs
(3)
where pH actual is the actual pH value of the solution as measured and pHs is
the pH of saturation of calcium phosphate and is determined from the nomogram
in Figure 3.
When the scaling index is positive, precipitation is likely.
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12. 7
CONTROL OF THE COOLING SYSTEM
Given that the cooling process and make-up water quality are determined,
much can be done to prevent the interaction of the four processes for
fouling by good control of the operation of the cooling system and of the
chemical dosing applied.
7.1
'Once through' Cooling Systems
For 'Once through' cooling systems, care should be taken to avoid a high
temperature rise through the exchangers as this can increase the risk of
scaling and can change the nature of particulate fouling from a sludge to a
baked deposit. Dosing with biocides, if used, should be frequent enough to
prevent deposit build-up. The use of corrosion resistant materials and
regular mechanical removal of deposits should then prevent major
problems.
7.2
Closed Recirculating Systems
At the other extreme, closed loop systems should only use a high quality
make-up water, ideally condensate or deionized water. A one-off shot
dose of corrosion inhibitor and biocide plus the adjustment to pH > 8.5
using alkali should then be sufficient to prevent fouling as long as there
is no significant loss of water. At elevated temperatures (>100 °C), it may
be better to employ a boiler water type of chemical treatment to minimize
corrosion. With either method, the water should be analyzed on a weekly
basis to guard against loss of treatment.
7.3
Open Evaporative Cooling Systems
7.3.1 Concentration Ratio
There is a natural tendency to concentrate minerals in the recirculating
water by evaporation. This can lead to severe scaling problems if the
make-up water is already hard, if the system is allowed to over
concentrate or if the bulk water temperatures are high.
Control is on the basis of Concentration Ratio, which is defined as the
ratio of concentration of the recirculating water to the make-up water,
usually based on the magnesium concentration in each. In practice, the
Concentration Ratio is determined by the rate of loss of water from the
system, either by deliberate purging or through leaks and other involuntary
losses.
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13. In general, the aim is to control the cooling system at a minimum ratio of 3
to 5, but in some systems ratios as high as 8 or 10 can be achieved. This
ratio determines how much water is used and how much chemical
treatment has to be added.
The control range is largely determined by the quality of the make-up
water and the flows and water temperatures in the various plant heat
exchangers. Operation at elevated concentrations can be achieved even
with hard make-up waters by using acid addition to depress the pH, but
failure of the dosing system can have serious consequences. Small
systems with low purge rates may be very difficult to control manually.
7.3.2 Half-life
The rate of change of chemical composition of the water also has an
impact on the ability to control fouling. This is increasingly important with
the introduction of high efficiency PVC packings into cooling towers, which
has allowed manufacturers to reduce the physical size of the towers and
thus the volume of water stored in the sump.
It is best represented by the half-life (or Holding Time Index) of the
system, which is proportional to the ratio of the volume of water in the
system to the purge rate.
For older towers, the half-life is typically 40-50 h, giving a relatively slow
rate of change which can be easily managed given a daily analysis.
Modern towers have the advantage of being considerably cheaper to
build, but operate with half-lives of typically 4-10 h, making manual
control very difficult. Variations in make-up water quality or cyclical
variations in heat load, such as are experienced in batch processes, make
these problems even worse.
7.3.3 Filtration
It may be possible to prevent suspended solids entering the cooling
system by filtering all the make-up water, but this will not remove solids
(several kilograms/day in industrial areas) sucked into the cooling tower
and scrubbed from the air by the falling water droplets. Chemical
dispersants may be able to prevent the finest of these particles from
settling; maintaining high water velocities will avoid the worst of the fouling
problems. Side-stream filtration of 3 to 10% of the recirculating water will
greatly assist the removal of the finer suspended solids (10 – 100 om)
which will otherwise cause major fouling problems.
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14. 7.3.4 Chemical Addition
However good the chemical treatment, it will be of little value if it is not
added consistently and at the correct rate. Such treatments will rarely
remove deposits once formed, so the intention is to prevent any
deposition. In view of the interaction between the various types of fouling,
it is essential that the treatment is regarded as a complete program in
which all parts shall be added if it is to work. It is, for example, of little
value to add a corrosion inhibitor when the metal surfaces are covered
with deposits, since it will not be able to penetrate to the metal surface to
prevent corrosion from occurring and adding to the fouling problems.
The dosing system required will depend on the treatment being applied
(corrosion inhibitor, dispersant, biocides, acid, etc.), the make-up water
quality, heat exchanger duty, half-life, etc.. There is no standard system
applicable for all conditions. At one extreme it may be sufficient to
use a manually adjusted purge and add the chemicals as "shot" doses
once per day. For more demanding systems it may be necessary to pump
in treatment chemicals and purge water in proportion to the make-up
water flow while adding two biocides, one continuously and the other
on a weekly basis, and acid on pH control. In this case the control system
is likely to be microprocessor controlled with a full alarm system.
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