The document is a guide to chemical bonding for GCSE students produced by Knockhardy Publishing. It provides an overview of the types of chemical bonds formed between atoms, including ionic bonds formed through electron transfer between atoms with configurations just short and just over a noble gas, and covalent bonds formed through electron pair sharing between atoms with configurations short of a noble gas. Examples of ionic compounds like sodium chloride and covalent compounds like water and methane are given to illustrate how bonding allows atoms to achieve stable noble gas configurations.
This is a presentation file that will provide you notes, proper diagrams, short tips, mnemonics about the alkali metals.. This course is of High School of grades 11 and 12. I think it will help every type of student. Similarly, you can find some repeated and important questions.
This is a presentation file that will provide you notes, proper diagrams, short tips, mnemonics about the alkali metals.. This course is of High School of grades 11 and 12. I think it will help every type of student. Similarly, you can find some repeated and important questions.
This teaching Material is for Grade - 9. We provide teaching material at no cost. Please don't forget to recommend/reference our teaching Material after use.
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.
Specifically designed for Leaving Cert Chemistry students. A simplified explanation of all the trends in the periodic Table. It includes details such as atomic radius, electronegativity and ionisation energy
This teaching Material is for Grade - 9. We provide teaching material at no cost. Please don't forget to recommend/reference our teaching Material after use.
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.
Specifically designed for Leaving Cert Chemistry students. A simplified explanation of all the trends in the periodic Table. It includes details such as atomic radius, electronegativity and ionisation energy
Chemical Structure: Structure of Matter. Atoms – the building blocks of matterulcerd
Lecture materials for the Introductory Chemistry course for Forensic Scientists, University of Lincoln, UK. See http://forensicchemistry.lincoln.ac.uk/ for more details.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
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In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
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With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
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Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
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Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
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Gbondingpps
1. CHEMICAL
BONDING
A guide for GCSE students
2010
KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING SPECIFICATIONS
2. CHEMICAL BONDING
INTRODUCTION
This Powerpoint show is one of several produced to help students
understand selected GCSE Chemistry topics. It is based on the requirements
of the AQA specification but is suitable for other examination boards.
Individual students may use the material at home for revision purposes and
it can also prove useful for classroom teaching with an interactive white
board.
Accompanying notes on this, and the full range of AS and A2 Chemistry
topics, are available from the KNOCKHARDY WEBSITE at...
www.knockhardy.org.uk
All diagrams and animations in this Powerpoint are original and
created by Jonathan Hopton. Permission must be obtained for their
use in any commercial work.
3. CHEMICAL BONDING
OVERVIEW
The following slides illustrate how the three main chemical
bonds are formed.
The physical properties of elements and compounds are
influenced by the type of bonding.
To understand how structure and bonding affects the
physical properties of elements and compounds, view the
powerpoint ‘STRUCTURE & BONDING’ available from the
KNOCKHARDY SCIENCE GCSE WEBSITE at...
www.knockhardy.org.uk/gcse.htm
4. WHAT IS BONDING?
Very few substances consist of single atoms.
The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms
5. WHAT IS BONDING?
Very few substances consist of single atoms.
The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms
All other elements exist as simple molecules (eg O2, N2), giant
molecular structures (diamond and graphite) or giant metallic
structures.
6. WHAT IS BONDING?
Very few substances consist of single atoms.
The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms
All other elements exist as simple molecules (eg O2, N2), giant
molecular structures (diamond and graphite) or giant metallic
structures.
COMPOUNDS are ‘substances in which two or more different
elements are chemically combined’.
7. WHAT IS BONDING?
Very few substances consist of single atoms.
The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms
All other elements exist as simple molecules (eg O2, N2), giant
molecular structures (diamond and graphite) or giant metallic
structures.
COMPOUNDS are ‘substances in which two or more different
elements are chemically combined’.
Elements can be combined using… IONIC
COVALENT
or METALLIC bonds
The type of bonding depends on the outer shell electronic configurations of
the atoms being bonded.
8. NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
NOBLE GASES ARE VERY UNREACTIVE
THEIR OUTER ENERGY LEVELS ARE ‘FULL’
2+ 10+ 18+
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ARGON
2,8,8
HELIUM
2
NEON
2,8
Group 0
9. NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
NOBLE GASES ARE VERY UNREACTIVE
THEIR OUTER ENERGY LEVELS ARE ‘FULL’
ATOMS WITHOUT A ‘FULL’ OUTER SHELL TRY
TO GET ONE
THEY CAN DO THIS IN SEVERAL WAYS
2+ 10+ 18+
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ARGON
2,8,8
HELIUM
2
NEON
2,8
Group 0
10. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
11. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
Li 2,1
Na 2,8,1
K 2,8,8,1
Be 2,2
Mg 2,8,2
Ca 2,8,8,2
Al 2,8,3
12. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
Li 2,1
Na 2,8,1
K 2,8,8,1
Be 2,2
Mg 2,8,2
Ca 2,8,8,2
Al 2,8,3
O 2,6
S 2,8,6
F 2,7
Cl 2,8,7
13. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT
Na 2,8,1
K 2,8,8,1
Mg 2,8,2
Ca 2,8,8,2
Al 2,8,3
O 2,6
S 2,8,6
F 2,7
Cl 2,8,7
14. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH
ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Na 2,8,1
K 2,8,8,1
Mg 2,8,2
Ca 2,8,8,2
Al 2,8,3
O 2,6
S 2,8,6
F 2,7
Cl 2,8,7
15. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH
ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED
16. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH
ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED
THOSE ON THE LEFT NOW HAVE FEWER ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS
(CATIONS)
17. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH
ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED
THOSE ON THE LEFT NOW HAVE FEWER ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS
THOSE ON THE RIGHT NOW HAVE MORE ELECTRONS NEGATIVE IONS
(ANIONS)
18. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST SHORT OF A
NOBLE GAS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT OF
A NOBLE GAS
IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH
ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED
THOSE ON THE LEFT NOW HAVE FEWER ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS
THOSE ON THE RIGHT NOW HAVE MORE ELECTRONS NEGATIVE IONS
THE IONS ATTRACT EACH OTHER TO FORM AN IONIC BOND
20. SODIUM CHLORIDE
Cl
Na
SODIUM ATOM
2,8,1
CHLORINE ATOM
2,8,7
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
21. SODIUM CHLORIDE
Cl
+
Na
SODIUM ION
2,8
CHLORIDE ION
2,8,8
both species now have ‘full’ outer shells; ie they
have the electronic configuration of a noble gas
22. SODIUM CHLORIDE
Cl
+
Na
SODIUM ION
2,8
CHLORIDE ION
2,8,8
Na Na+ + e¯
2,8,1 2,8
ELECTRON TRANSFERRED
Cl + e¯ Cl¯
2,8,7 2,8,8
23. CALCIUM CHLORIDE
Cl
Ca
CALCIUM ATOM
2,8,8,2
CHLORINE ATOMS
2,8,7
Cl
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
24. CALCIUM CHLORIDE
Cl
Ca
CALCIUM ION
2,8,8
CHLORIDE IONS
2,8,8
Cl
2+
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
25. CALCIUM CHLORIDE
Cl
CALCIUM ION
2,8,8
Ca
CHLORIDE IONS
2,8,8
Cl
2+
Ca Ca2+ + 2e¯
2,8,8,2 2,8,8
2 ELECTRONS
TRANSFERRED
2Cl + 2e¯ 2Cl¯
2,8,7 2,8
26. MAGNESIUM OXIDE
O
Mg
MAGNESIUM ATOM
2,8,2
OXYGEN ATOM
2,6
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
27. MAGNESIUM OXIDE
Mg2+
MAGNESIUM ION
2,8
O2-
OXIDE ION
2,8
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
28. MAGNESIUM OXIDE
Mg2+
MAGNESIUM ION
2,8
O2-
OXIDE ION
2,8
Mg Mg2+ + 2e¯
2,8,2 2,8
2 ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED
O + 2e¯ O2-
2,6 2,8
29. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2
30. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
SHORT OF A NOBLE
GAS
31. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
SHORT OF A NOBLE
GAS
TYPICAL
COMBINATIONS
Elements
H2 O2 N2 Cl2
Compounds
H2O NH3 CH4
32. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
SHORT OF A NOBLE
GAS
TYPICAL
COMBINATIONS
Elements
H2 O2 N2 Cl2
Compounds
H2O NH3 CH4
IF BOTH ELEMENTS COMBINING TOGETHER NEED TO GAIN
ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION THEY MUST…
33. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
SHORT OF A NOBLE
GAS
TYPICAL
COMBINATIONS
Elements
H2 O2 N2 Cl2
Compounds
H2O NH3 CH4
IF BOTH ELEMENTS COMBINING TOGETHER NEED TO GAIN
ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION THEY MUST SHARE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS
34. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
SHORT OF A NOBLE
GAS
TYPICAL
COMBINATIONS
Elements
H2 O2 N2 Cl2
Compounds
H2O NH3 CH4
IF BOTH ELEMENTS COMBINING TOGETHER NEED TO GAIN
ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION THEY MUST SHARE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS
A SHARED PAIR OF ELECTRONS IS KNOWN AS A COVALENT BOND
36. COVALENT BONDING
A covalent bond consists of…
a shared pair of electrons with one electron being
supplied by each atom either side of the bond.
The atoms are held together because both their nuclei (which have an
overall positive charge) are attracted to the same shared pair of
negatively charged electrons. COVALENT BONDS ARE STRONG.
+ +
shared pair
of electrons
Nucleus
(positively
charged)
37. HYDROGEN
H H H H
both atoms need one electron
to complete their outer shell
atoms share a pair of electrons
to form a single covalent bond
H H H H H2
38. HYDROGEN
H
both atoms need one electron
to complete their outer shell
H H
H H H
atoms share a pair of electrons
to form a single covalent bond
H H
Covalent bonds are
represented by a line
H2
39. HYDROGEN
H H
Another hydrogen atom
also needs one electron to
complete its outer shell
WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE
H H
Hydrogen atom needs
one electron to
complete its outer shell
atoms share a pair of electrons to
form a single covalent bond
A hydrogen MOLECULE is formed
H H
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
40. CHLORINE
Cl Cl Cl Cl
both atoms need one electron
to complete their outer shell
atoms share a pair of electrons to
form a single covalent bond
A CHLORINE MOLECULE IS FORMED
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl2
41. CHLORINE
Cl
Another chlorine
atom also needs one
electron to complete
its outer shell
Cl
Chlorine atom
needs one electron
to complete its
outer shell
atoms share a pair of
electrons to form a
single covalent bond
WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE
Cl Cl Cl Cl
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
42. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
Cl H Cl H
atom also needs one
electron to complete
its outer shell
atom needs one
electron to complete
its outer shell
H Cl H Cl
atoms share a pair of
electrons to form a single
covalent bond
A HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
MOLECULE IS FORMED
HCl
43. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
Cl H
Hydrogen atom also
needs one electron
to complete its outer
shell
atoms Chlorine share a atom
pair of
electrons needs one to electron
form a
single to complete covalent bond
its
outer shell
WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE
H Cl H Cl
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
44. METHANE
C
H H
H H
C
H
H
H
H
H
H C H
H
H
H C H
H
each atom needs one
electron to complete
its outer shell
atom needs four
electrons to complete
its outer shell
Carbon shares all 4 of its
electrons to form 4 single
covalent bonds
CH4
45. METHANE
C
WAYS TO REPRESENT
THE MOLECULE
Each hydrogen
atom needs 1
electron to
complete its
outer shell
A carbon atom needs 4
electrons to complete
Carbon shares all 4 of
its electrons to form 4
single its covalent outer shell
bonds
H
H
H C H
H
H
H
H
H
H C H
H
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
46. AMMONIA
N
H H
H
N
H H
H
H N H
H
each atom needs one
electron to complete
its outer shell
H N H
H
atom needs three
electrons to complete
its outer shell
Nitrogen can only share 3 of
its 5 electrons otherwise it will
exceed the maximum of 8
A LONE PAIR REMAINS
NH3
47. AMMONIA
WAYS TO REPRESENT
H
THE MOLECULE
N Each hydrogen
atom H needs
N H
one electron to
complete its
outer shell
Nitrogen can only share 3 of its
5 electrons otherwise it will
atom needs 3 electrons
to complete its outer shell
exceed the maximum of 8
A LONE PAIR REMAINS
H
H
H
H N H
H
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
48. WATER
O
H O
H
H
H
each atom needs one
electron to complete
its outer shell
atom needs two
electrons to complete
its outer shell
Oxygen can only share 2 of its
6 electrons otherwise it will
exceed the maximum of 8
TWO LONE PAIRS REMAIN
H O
H
H O
H
H2O
49. WATER
WAYS TO REPRESENT
THE MOLECULE
Each hydrogen
atom needs
one electron to
complete its
H O
outer shell
O
Oxygen atom needs 2 electrons
Oxygen can only share 2 of its 6
to complete its outer shell
electrons otherwise it will
exceed the maximum of 8
2 LONE PAIRS REMAIN
H
H
H
H O
H
PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION
50. OXYGEN
O
O O O
each oxygen atom needs
two electrons to complete
its outer shell
each oxygen shares 2 of its
electrons to form a
DOUBLE COVALENT BOND
O O Double covalent bonds are
represented by TWO lines
O2
51. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
52. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ELEMENTS IN
GROUPS I, II III and
THE CENTRAL
SECTION* ARE
METALS
53. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ELEMENTS IN
GROUPS I, II III and
THE CENTRAL
SECTION* ARE
METALS
• The central section of the periodic table
contains the transition metals
TRANSITION
METALS
54. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ELEMENTS IN
GROUPS I, II III and
THE CENTRAL
SECTION ARE
METALS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT
OF A NOBLE GAS
55. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ELEMENTS IN
GROUPS I, II III and
THE CENTRAL
SECTION ARE
METALS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT
OF A NOBLE GAS
ELEMENTS ON THE LEFT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE NEED TO ‘GET
RID OF’ ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
56. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ELEMENTS IN
GROUPS I, II III and
THE CENTRAL
SECTION ARE
METALS
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT
OF A NOBLE GAS
ELEMENTS ON THE LEFT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE NEED TO ‘GET
RID OF’ ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
ELECTRONS LEAVE TO FORM A MOBILE ‘CLOUD’ OF ELECTRONS
57. Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3
H
Li
Na
K
Be
Mg
B
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
F
Cl
He
Ne
Ar
Ca
ELEMENTS IN
GROUPS I, II III and
THE CENTRAL
SECTION ARE
METALS
ELEMENTS ON THE LEFT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE NEED TO ‘GET
RID OF’ ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
ELECTRONS LEAVE TO FORM A MOBILE ‘CLOUD’ OF ELECTRONS
THIS IS KNOWN AS... METALLIC BONDING
ATOMS OF THESE
ELEMENTS HAVE
ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATIONS
JUST OVER THAT
OF A NOBLE GAS
59. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
60. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
Atoms arrange themselves
in a regular lattice
61. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
Atoms arrange themselves
in a regular lattice
The outer shell electrons of each atom
leave to join a mobile ‘cloud’ or ‘sea’ of
electrons which can roam throughout
the metal. The electron cloud holds
positive ions together.
62. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na
SODIUM ATOMS
WITH ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION 2,8,1
Na
Na
63. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na
Na
SODIUM ATOMS
WITH ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION 2,8,1
THE OUTER SHELL
Na
ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED
64. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na
Na
SODIUM ATOMS
WITH ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION 2,8,1
THE OUTER SHELL
Na
ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED
POSITIVE SODIUM IONS
WITH ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION 2,8
65. METALLIC BONDING
METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES
METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO
THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na Na Na Na
Na
Na
SODIUM ATOMS
WITH ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION 2,8,1
THE OUTER SHELL
Na
ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED
POSITIVE SODIUM IONS
WITH ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION 2,8
THE ELECTRON CLOUD
CONTAINS THE RELEASED
OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS
66. TO LEARN HOW THE TYPE OF BONDING AFFECTS THE
STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS AND
COMPOUNDS, VIEW THE ASSOCIATED POWERPOINT
PRESENTATION…
STRUCTURE & BONDING
WHICH CAN BE DOWNLOADED FROM THE KNOCKHARDY GCSE
WEBSITE AT… www.knockhardy.org/gcse.htm