In later childhood (ages 6-12): - Children develop concrete operational thinking according to Piaget, allowing logical reasoning about real objects but not abstract concepts. They can conserve quantity. - Socially, friendships become reciprocal, children develop person perception focusing on internal traits, and organize into groups with shared goals and hierarchies. - Peer influence increases compared to parents, though culture impacts this; in the USSR, peers reinforced adult norms more than in the US.

2. LATER CHILDHOOD
• Freud termed this 6-12 years of child’s life as latency
period.
• However, in many areas of development, these years
are actually action-packed, not latent at all.
• They are filled with both motion and emotion as the
child confronts the diverse demands of school and
entry into a rule-bound society.

3.  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
 Piaget’s concrete operational stage.
• The intellectual tools that children develop in this
period were labeled concrete operations.
• This stage involves a major advance in the power of
the child's reasoning.
• Muller-Lyer illusion experiment.

4. Muller-Lyer illusion:
• A
• B
step – 1 step - 2

5. • They recognize that the length of a particular stick
will remain fixed so long as nothing is added or taken
away from it: the principle of conservation of length.
• Their mental actions show reversibility.
• When these mental activities can be used in flexible
ways (e.g. reversibility) and understood in relation to
one another, they qualify as true operations.

6.  Conservation:
ability to recognize that, although the shape of
objects may change, the objects still maintain or
conserve other characteristics that enable them to
be recognized as same.

7.  The concrete-operational child organizes the world
by using hierarchies.
• In these hierarchies, a given "thing" can fall
somewhere on more than one dimension at the
same time.
• The flexible operations allow older children to think
in terms of a hierarchy involving two dimensions, one
broader than the other.

9.  The concrete-operational child's thinking shows a
power and versatility.
• But even this more advanced level of thought has its
limitations.
• The operations are concrete in the sense that they are
tied to the real world of objects and events.

10. • The children can think clearly about things that are
real, but not very clearly about more hypothetical
propositions such as, "Suppose that water boiled at
32°”.
• It is also hard for the concrete-operational child to
grasp the broad meaning of abstract concepts such as
freedom, integrity, truth.
• These limitations mean that intellectual growth in later
childhood though impressive is still incomplete.

11. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:
• As their social world expands to include classmates and
teachers, children’s ways of thinking about people show
a corresponding change.
• Studies of "person perception” show that a child even
as old as 6 or 7 will describe others in egocentric ways,
referring to what the other people do to or for the child.
• Descriptions at this age also focus on concrete.
observable characteristics of others, such as their
physical appearance or their outward behavior.

12. • During the next few years, children begin to use more
and more descriptive statements involving
psychological characteristics-statements that require
some inference about the other person.
• E.g. He smells very much and is very nasty. He has no
sense of humor and is very dull. He is always fighting
and is cruel. He does silly things and is very stupid. He
has brown hair and cruel eyes.

13. Friendship:
• The development of "person perception" goes hand in
hand with changes in the nature of friendship.
• In the early preschool years, children have momentary
playmates but not ongoing, reciprocal friendships.
• Between age 4 – 9 , most children develop an ongoing
friendships.
• Their first friendships tend to be self-serving; a friend is
someone who "does what I want."

14. • Later, during the elementary school years, friendships
become not only outgoing but reciprocal as well.
• Friends are seen as people who "do things for each
other”.
• This quality of exclusion, or possessiveness, goes along
with many friendships in the middle and late
elementary years, and also in adolescence.

15. Groups:
• At the same time that children are learning to form one-
to-one relationships with friends, they are learning to
organize themselves into groups.
• Groups have certain defining
characteristics:
goals shared by its members,
rules of conduct , and
a hierarchical structure.

16. • The structure resembles the organizational chart of a
corporation. There are leaders at the apex and followers
at the lower levels; each individual member has some
identifiable relationship to other members.
• A classic camp study by Sheriff and others showed that
group formation in preadolescents is stimulated by
- the experience of living together,
- sharing pleasant experiences,
- cooperating in ventures that involve shared goals.
- and competing with other groups.

17. • The Sheriff study, suggests that shared adversity and
joint problem solving can stimulate group formation and
reduce antagonism between groups.

18. Peer versus Adult Influence:
• During the elementary school years, friends and groups
of peers take on central importance in a child‘s social
life.
• Does this mean that the influence of parents wanes?
• Yes, e.g. in the U.S., which is perhaps one of the most
peer-oriented of cultures, by the late elementary
school period, there are many situations in which
American youngsters prefer relying on peers to relying
on parents.

19. • Studies of other cultures, though, show that these
tendencies are not inevitable in late childhood.
• Instead, they seem to depend upon the socializing
experiences children are exposed to as they grow up.
• E.g. In the Soviet union peers are used throughout the
school years as enforcers of adult norms.

20. • To find out, What impact do these socialization practices have on
Soviet youngsters, Brofenbrenner asked a group of Soviet
children and a group of American children to tell when they
would do in response to several dilemmas.
• Asked the Youngsters whether they would go to a movie that
their friends recommended but that their parents disapproved of.
• American children were likely to violate the adult norms; Soviet
children were likely to follow the adult norms.
• Apparently, peers have a powerful impact in later childhood; but
whether this impact works for or against adult values and
teachings will depend upon the previous socialization of the
children.

21. DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES
• Gross motor:
Age Milestone achieved
3 months Head control/neck holding
4-6 months Trunk attaining control/roll over
6 months Sitting with support/tripod posture
8 months Sitting without support, crawling, creeping
10 months Standing with support
11 months Cruising (moving side ways)
12 months Standing without support, walking with
support
15 months Walking without support
18 months running
2 years Climbing the stairs( 2 foot/step)
3 years Climbing upstairs (1 foot/step)
4 years Climbing downstairs(1 foot/step)

22. • Fine motor:
Age Milestone achieved
3 months Hands closed
4 months Bidextrous grasping
6 months Unidextrous grasping, ulnar palmar grasp
(immature)
8 months radial palmar grasp(mature)
10 months Immature pincer grasp
12 months Mature pincer grasp
15 months Scribbling, builds tower of 2 cubes
18 months Drawing a line, tower of 4 cubes
2 years Undressing with help, tower of 6 cubes
3 years Draws circle, dressing with help, tower of 9 cubes
4 years Draws square, cross, plus
5 years Draws triangle shape, dressing without help
6 years Draws diamond/rhomboid shape

23. • Language development:
Age Milestone achieved
3 months Cooing, musical sounds
6 months Mono syllable (ma, pa)
9 months Bi syllable (mama, papa)
1 year 1-2 words
15 months jargon speech
18 months 8- 10 words
2 years 2 word sentences
3 years Name, age, gender
4 years Tell story, rhymes

24. • Social development:
Age Milestone achieved
2 months Social smile
3 months Mother regard
6 months Stranger anxiety, smiling at
mirror image
9 months Says ‘bye bye’
1 year Playing simple ball game
18 months Domestic mimicry
3 years Parallel play
4 years Group interactive play

25. DISORDERS IN CHILDHOOD
DISORDERS OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT/
MENTAL RETARDATION:
• A group of etiologically diverse conditions originating
during the developmental period characterized by
significantly below average intellectual functioning
and adaptive behaviour that are approximately 2 or
more standard deviations below the mean.

26. Mild
IQ – 50-69
Exhibit difficulties in the acquisition and comprehension of
complex language concepts and academic skills. Can master
basic self care, domestic and practical activities. Can achieve
relatively independent living and employment but require
appropriate support.
Moderate
IQ – 35-49
Language and capacity for acquisition of academic skills vary
but are generally limited to basic skills. Some may master
basic self care, domestic and practical activities. Most require
considerable and consistent support in order to achieve
independent living and employment.
Severe
IQ – 20-34
Very limited language and capacity for acquisition of
academic skills. May have motor impairments & require daily
support but may acquire basic self care skills with intensive
training.
Profound
IQ - < 20
Very limited communication skills and academic skills. May
have motor and sensory impairments and typically require
daily support in a supervised environment for adequate care.

27. DEVELOPMENTAL SPEECH OR LANGUAGE DIORDER:
• Arise during the developmental period and are
characterized by difficulties in understanding or
producing speech and language
• or in using language in context for the purposes of
communication that are outside the limits of normal
variation expected for age and level of intellectual
functioning.

28. DEVELOPMENTAL LEARNING DISORDER:
• Characterized by significant and persistent difficulties in
learning academic skills, which may include reading,
writing or arithmetic.
• Academic performance is markedly below the
expectation for chronological age and intellectual
functioning.
• Not due to disorder of intellectual development,
sensory or motor impairment, neurological disorder,
lack of education.

29. AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER:
• Characterized by persistent deficits in the ability to
initiate and to sustain social interaction and social
communication
• and by a range of restricted, repetitive and inflexible
patterns of behavior and interests.
• Onset – early childhood; may fully manifest later.
• Cause impairment in personal, family, social,
educational and other areas of functioning.

30. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder:
• Onset – early-mid childhood.
• Inattentive – fails to give close attention
-Difficulty in sustaining attention in tasks or play
activities.
- Doesn’t seem to listen when spoken directly.
- Doesn’t follow instructions and fails to finish school
work.
- Easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
- Forgetful in daily activities.

31. Hyperactivity and impulsivity:
• Leaves seat in situations when
remaining seated is expected.
• Runs about or climbs in situations where it is
inappropriate.
• Unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly.
• Talks excessively.
• Blurts out an answer before a question has been
completed.
• Difficulty in waiting his/her turn.
• Interrupts or intrudes on others.

32. CONDUCT DISORDER:
• Repetitive and persistent pattern of dissocial, aggressive
or defiant conduct.
• Symptoms: - excessive levels of fighting or bullying
• Cruelty to animals or other people
• Severe destructiveness to property
• Fire setting; stealing; repeated lying
• Truancy from school
• Running away from home
• Defiant provocative behavior
• Persistent severe disobedience.

33. SEPERATION ANXIETY DISORDER:
 Arises during early years.
 Focused excessive anxiety concerning separation from
those individuals to whom the child is attached.
 Associated with significant problems in social
functioning.
• Persistent reluctance or refusal to go to school
• Persistent reluctance or refusal to go to sleep without
being near to a major attachment figure.
• Repeated nightmares about separation.

34. SIBLING RIVALRY DISORDER:
• Following the birth of a younger sibling.
• Emotional disturbance that is abnormal in degree
and/or persistence and associated with psychosocial
problems.
• Marked competition with siblings for the attention
and affection of parents associated with unusual
degree of negative feelings.
• Strong reluctance to share; lack of positive regard;
paucity of friendly interactions.

35. PICA
RUMINATION
DISORDER
AVOIDANT/
RESTRICTIVE
FOOD INTAKE
DISORDER
Pica is
defined as
persistent
eating of
nonnutritive
substances
Rumination is an
effortless and
painless
regurgitation of
partially digested
food into the mouth
soon after a meal,
which is either
swallowed
or spit out
characterized by a
lack of interest in
food, or its
avoidance based on
the sensory features
of the food or the
perceived
consequences of
eating.