This document provides an overview of key concepts from the chapter "What is Language?" from the textbook An Introduction to Language by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. It discusses several main topics: the primary functions of language being creative thinking and mapping real-world concepts rather than just communication; the complexity and creativity of human language; Noam Chomsky's view that language is innate rather than learned; differences between human and animal communication systems; and debates around descriptive vs. prescriptive grammar and language variation. Exercises and examples are provided to illustrate linguistic concepts like sound symbolism, iconicity, and debates around language policy.

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CHAPTER 1:
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
PowerPoint by Don L. F. Nilsen
to accompany
An Introduction to Language (8th or 9th edition 2007/2011)
by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman
and Nina Hyams

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LANGUAGE PLAY &
MAPPING
The primary function of language is not
to communicate, but is rather to think
creatively or analogically. Language
play allows humans to map an infinite
number of real-world details onto a
small finite number of sounds, letters
and words.
(cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 8-11)

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And the exciting thing is that
this mapping happens not
only for the infinite details of
the real world, but of all
possible worlds whether real,
discovered, invented,
postulated, fictionalized, or
imagined.

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THE CONTINUITY PARADOX
Derek Bickerton states it as follows:
“Until we cease to regard language as
primarily communicative and begin to
treat it as primarily representational, we
cannot hope to escape from the
Continuity Paradox” (Bickerton 689).

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FORM-MEANING CORRELATION
CONTRAST SOUNDS, SPELLINGS AND MEANINGS:
Antonyms: tall vs. short
Converses: buy vs. sell
Cognates: embarrassed vs. embarazada
Heteronyms: minute vs. minute
Homographs: bank vs. bank
Homonyms: Homographs or Homophones
Homophones: too vs. two vs. to
Hyponyms: metaphor vs. metaphor
Synonyms: big vs. large
(Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 196-198)

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WORD-LEVEL VS. SENTENCE-LEVEL GRAMMAR
LEXICAL: SYNTACTIC:
AMBIGUITY: Take your pick! Call me a taxi!
ANOMALY: She wanted a gnepf. John me cow a gave.
PARAPHRASE: William hit a policeman. Bill hit John.
vs. Bill slugged a cop. vs. John was hit by Bill.

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WHAT A GRAMMAR MUST DEAL WITH
Analysis vs. Synthesis:
Parsing vs. Generative Grammar
Denotation vs. Connotation:
Pro-Choice vs. Pro-Life views of
“abortion”
Systematic vs. Accidental Gaps:
“schplick” vs. “blick”

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FORM VS. MEANING
Linguistics is concerned with the mapping of
meaning onto form (decoding) and form onto
meaning (encoding).
The form is the surface structure (phonology,
graphology, morphology and syntax)
The meaning is the deep structure (semantics,
pragmatics, discourse)
(cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 8-11)

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LEVELS OF ADEQUACY
Prescriptive Adequacy: What people should do
Descriptive Adequacy: What people do do
Explanatory Adequacy: Patterns, Trends, and Predictions
Evaluative Adequacy: Based on Elegance
Simplicity
Completeness
Internal Consistency
Generative Power
(cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 13-18)

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SURFACE STRUCTURE
Syntax Allotag Tagmeme
Morphology Allomorph Morpheme
Graphology Allograph Grapheme
Phonology Allophone Phoneme

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DEEP STRUCTURE
Pragmatics (Context, Deictics, Anaphora,
Speech Acts, Conversational Implicatures,
Intent, Felicity Conditions)
Pragmatics Allobehavior Behavioreme
Semantics Alloseme Sememe

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EVOLUTION
During the past five million years, “our forebears
became predominantly right-handed, made use of
increasingly sophisticated tools, and organized their
culture in ever more complex ways.” This evolution
resulted in “a puny, almost hairless animal, with a
bent windpipe that reduced breathing efficiency to
nearly half of its original capacity. The creature’s
teeth were practically useless for chewing.” But we
had an asymetrical brain with the left hemisphere
being efficient at learning language. (Heny 634).

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M. A. K. Halliday’s 7 Functions of Language:
Instrumental: To get things done
Regulatory: To control other people
Interactional: To define groups and relationships
Personal: To express feelings and beliefs
Heuristic:To test hypotheses or to learn
Imaginative: To create a world
Representational: To give information (Clark, 52)

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In terms of language,
Who’s in charge?
“We make language more than language
makes us” (Clark, 55).
Go to slide 15 to find out what Humpty
Dumpty said about language?

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In Through the Looking-Glass
Humpty Dumpty Says to Alice
“I don’t know what you mean by ‘glory,’ ” Alice said.
Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. “Of course you don’t—till I tell
you. I meant ‘there’s a nice knock-down argument for you!’ ”
“But ‘glory’ doesn’t mean ‘a nice knock-down argument’,” Alice
objected.
“When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather a scornful tone,
“it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.”
“The question is,” said Alice, “whether you can make words mean so
many different things.”
“The question is,” said Humpty Dumpty, “which is to be
master. That’s all.”

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Poem by Maurice Evan Hare
There once was a man who said,
“Damn!”
It is born in upon me I am
An engine that moves
In predestinate grooves,
I’m not even a bus; I’m a tram.
--Aitchison 560

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THE INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS
Noam Chomsky claims that language is
innate.
B. F. Skinner claims that language is
learned; it is basically a stimulus-
response mechanism.

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Noam Chomsky reviewed B. F.
Skinner’s Verbal Behavior in
Language, the journal of the
Linguistic Society of America
and convincingly presented
twelve types of evidence that
language is basically innate,
not learned.

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1. Language is very complex. Consider the complexity of
any complete English grammar book.
2. The model for language learning is imperfect. Mothers
use caregiver language; friends use baby talk; children
use modified grammar (holophrastic, pivot-open, or
telegraphic).
3. All humans learn a spoken language (NOTE: Chomsky
does not claim that written language is innate).
(Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 1-34)

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4. No animals learn a human-type language. However,
some animal languages are impressive:
primates (Vikki-Hayes, Koko-Patterson, Warshow-
Gardners, Lana, Nim Chimsky-Terrace, Sarah-
Thomas/Church)
bees (Von Frisch)
dolphins (Lilly)
birds, parrots and cockatiels
canines
equines
bovines
felines
ants
(cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 21-27)

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ANIMAL MESSAGES: Come. Go. Food. Protection
(camouflage, assistance, misleading enemies…). Sex.
Territory, Dominance, Mimic, Defiance, Friendship,
Attention
ANIMAL LANGUAGE: Calls. Body Coloring and Shape.
Tail Slap, Facial Expression. Tail Wagging, Baring
Throat, Dancing (Round, Tail-wagging, Sickle),
Whistling, Chuttering, Attacking, Singing, Giving Off
Pheromones
HUMAN-LANGUAGES AMONG ANIMALS: AMESLAN,
Yerkish, Computers, Magnetic Chips, “Sugar Fruit,”
“Finger Bracelet” 2nd-Generation Language (Planet of
the Apes)

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WASHOW SIGNING “TICKLE” (KEMP AND SMITH 671) 671)

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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: CONFIGURATION
(Emmorey 82)
(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 257-258)

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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: PLACE (Emmorey
82)
(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 257-258)

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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: MOVEMENT (Emmorey 82)
(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 257-258)

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BEES’ ROUND DANCE (Kemp & Smith 663)

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BEES’ TAIL-WAGGING DANCE (Kemp and Smith 664)

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SARAH’S SYMBOLS (Kemp and Smith 672)

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YERKISH LEXIGRAMS (Kemp and Smith
672)

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5. There are many human-language universals, and these are only a
small subset of semiotic possibilities; computer languages don’t
have these same natural-language constraints (embedding, cross-
over, A over A, etc.).
6. There is a critical age for foreign-language acquisition (around
puberty).
7. There is a sequence in language acquisition (holophrastic, pivot-
open, telegraphic, adult). Note also color acquisition in both
phylogeny and ontogeny.
(Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 1-37)

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8. Human language is rule-governed (like
mathematics). It is not memorized.
9. Human language is very creative.
Except for small-talk, almost all sentences
are novel. Language can adjust to new
situations (unlike bee-language for
unexpected placing of honey source).
(Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 1-37)

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10. Human language has duality. A limited
number of symbols are reused in many different
ways.
11. Human language has displacement in Time,
Place, and Truth.
12. Human language is not predictable. Given a
particular stimulus, there is a much wider range
of responses for humans than for animals.
(Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 1-37)

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CONCLUSION
The most important of Chomsky’s
observations is that “Language is Creative.”
Language should not be prescribed, as that
would limit its creativity. Rather, language
should be allowed to adapt to social
situations. In other word language VARIES in
the following ways:

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LANGUAGE VARIATION
V-Vocational Differences
A-Age Differences
Individual (holophrastic vs. adult language)
Language (Old English vs. Modern English)
R-Regional Differences
I-Informality Differences
E-Ethnic Differences
S-Sex Differences

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METAPHOR, METONYMY, SYNECDOCHE,
IRONY AND LANGUAGE PLAY
The most creative aspect of
language is its ability to adapt to
new situations, and it does this by
using the “Master Tropes”:
Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche,
and Irony.

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HOMO ERECTUS, HOMO SAPIENS,
HOMO LOQUENS AND HOMO RIDENS
Humans have been called “homo erectus” because like
primates, kangaroos and chickens they stand erect.
They have been called “homo sapiens” because they
are the thinking animal.
They have been called “home loquens” because they
are the talking animal.
But they have been called “homo ridens” because they
are the only animal that laughs appropriately.

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LANGUAGE FOR ENGAGEMENT
LANGUAGE FOR TRANSCENDENCE
Language is a tool that allows us to deal with
the real world. It allows us to solve the
problems of the real world. It helps us
survive.
But as we spend less and less time working to
survive and more and more time thinking and
pondering, our language needs to meet these
new needs.

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Exercise 2: *Ungrammatical
A. Robin forced the sherrif go.
B. Napoleon forced Josephine to go.
C. The devil made Faust go.
D. He passed by a large pile of money.
E. He came by a large sum of money
F. He came a large sum of money by.
G. Did in a corner little Jack Horner sit?
H. Elizabeth is resembled by Charles
I. Nancy is eager to please.
(Fromkin Rodman & Hyams [2011] 38-39)

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J. It is easy to frighten Emily.
K. It is eager to love a kitten.
L. That birds can fly amazes.
M. The fact you are late to class is surprising.
N. Has the nurse slept the baby yet?
O. I was surprised for you to get married.
P. I wonder who and Mary went swimming.
Q. Myself bit John.
R. What did Alice eat the toadstool with?
S. What did Alice eat the toadstool and?
(Fromkin Rodman & Hyams [2011] 38-39)

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Exercise 3: Onomatopoeia
Animals across languages:
Cows Horses Pigs
Chickens Roosters Chicks
Lions Tigers Goat
Cats Dogs Turkeys
Geese Pigeons Sheep
Pigs Frogs Donkeys
Hens Crows Flies
(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams [2011] 39)

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Exercise 3: Sound Symbolism
Bang
Beep
Bubble
Buzz
Clap
Click
Crackle
Crunch
Gong
Groan
Gurgle
Hiss
Kerplop
Screech
Sigh
Slap
Slurp
Smack
Smash
Snap
Swish
Thump
Tinkle
Whiz
Zing
Snap crackle & pop
(Fromkin, Rodman &
Hyams [2011] 39)

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Exercise 3: Reduplication
Children
Bowwow
Dada
Dingdong
Doodoo
Mama
Peepee
Weewee
Adults:
Hanky Panky
Ticktock
Tooty Fruity
Zig Zag
Zsa Zsa
Other Examples:
(Fromkin, Rodman &
Hyams [2011] 92)

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Exercise 4: Iconicity &
Paralanguage
I II III IV X
1 2 3 0
١ ٢ ٣ ٠
*

. ? !
$
Shhh! Shush!
Hiss
Tsk tsk
Uh Huh! (yes)
Uh uh (no)
Huh?
Giddyup
(lateral click)
Raspberry (Bronx
Cheer)
Uchhhhh
Yuchhhhh
Wolf Whistle
Swearing
(*^&%+#@!)
(Fromkin, Rodman &
Hyams [2011] 39)

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Exercise 12: Pygmalion
by George Bernard Shaw
“The rain in Spain is mainly on the plain.”
“In Heartford, Herriford and Hartshire,
hurricanes hardly ever happen.”
“Look at her—a prisoner of the gutters;
Condemned by ev’ry syllable she utters.
By right she should be taken out and hung
For the cold-blooded murder of the English
tongue!” (Pygmalion, 109)

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!My Fair Lady by Lerner and Lowe
An Englishman’s way of speaking absolutely classifies
him.
The moment he talks he makes some other English
despise him,
One common language I’m afraid we’ll never get.
Oh, why can’t the English learn to
Set a good example to people whose English is painful
to your ears?
The Scots and the Irish leave you close to tears.
There even are places, where English completely
disappears.
In America, they haven’t used it for years! (110)
(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams [2011] 40-41)

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!!Exercise 13:
English Only vs. Bilingualism
Discuss Queen Elizabeth I’s outlawing of Celtic dress, music and
traditions
King James Translation of the Bible into English to unite England
with Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland by an English-Only
movement
What about the English-only movement today vs. bilingualism?
(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams [2011] 41)

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!!!Animal-Play Web Sites:
ANIMAL POWER MOVES:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkYbFr7dcIs
CATS VS. DOGS PLAYING:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dugipeVZtE
ELEPHANTS PLAYING SOCCER:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sP09MejTcA
ELEPHANT PLAYING SOCCER:
http://www.videovat.com/videos/1419/elephant-soccer.aspx

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I CAN HAS CHEEZBURGER WEB SITE:
http://icanhascheezburger.com/
LOLCAT BIBLE:
http://www.lolcatbible.com/index.php?title=Genesis_1
PETCENTRIC WEB SITE:
http://www.petcentric.com/article/aspx?C=1&OID=180
TAASP: THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY OF PLAY:
http://www.tasplay.org

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References:
Aitchison, Jean. “Predestinate Grooves: Is There a
Preordained Language ‘Program’?” (Clark 560-578).
Bickerton, Derek. “The Continuity Paradox” (Clark 681-
695).
Bolton, W. F. “Language: An Introduction” (Clark, 61-
73).
Clark, Virginia, Paul Eschholz, and Alfred Rosa.
Language: Readings in Language and Culture, 6th
Edition. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1998.
Daniels, Harvey A. “Nine Ideas about Language (Clark,
43-60).

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Emmorey, Karen. “Sign Language” (Clark 78-94).
Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. “What is
Language?” An Introduction to Language, 9th Edition. Boston,
MA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2011, 1-42.
Heny, Jeannine. “Brain and Language (Clark, 634-657).
Kemp, William, and Roy Smith. “Signals, Signs, and Words: From
Animal Communication to Language” (Clark 658-679).
Nilsen, Alleen Pace, and Don L. F. Nilsen. Encyclopedia of 20th
Century American Humor. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000.
Nilsen, Don L. F., and Alleen Pace Nilsen. Language Play: An
Introduction to Linguistics. Rowley, MA: Newbury House
Publishers, 1978.