Four classes of macromolecules
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The document discusses the four major classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It provides details on their biological importance, dietary sources, and functional groups. Carbohydrates are an important energy source and make up cell walls and exoskeletons. Lipids are used for long-term energy storage and are essential components of cell membranes. Proteins determine cell structure and function and carry out all cellular processes. Nucleic acids control reproduction through DNA and protein production via DNA and RNA. ATP stores and transfers energy within cells and fuels all cellular metabolism.
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The document discusses the importance of biochemistry. It states that biochemistry is the science concerned with the chemical constituents of living cells and the reactions and processes they undergo. It notes that biochemistry is essential to life sciences like genetics, physiology, immunology, toxicology, pharmacology, and pathology. The document also provides examples of how biochemistry helps understand normal body functions and the origins of diseases.
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Cells 1 Parts and Functions
1. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function of all living things. Cells come in two main types - prokaryotic cells that lack a nucleus and eukaryotic cells that have a nucleus enclosed within membranes.
2. All cells contain macromolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids and organelles that allow them to carry out functions necessary for life like metabolism, transport of molecules, and protein production.
3. In multicellular organisms, cells become specialized through differentiation to perform specific functions like muscle contraction, nerve signaling, or production of enzymes. Specialized cells have unique structures tailored to their function.
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Biology: Unit 1 Biochemistry--Characteristics of Life and Biomolecules
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Speciation
Speciation is the process by which new species form. It occurs when populations become isolated from each other and diverge to the point that they can no longer interbreed. Isolation can be geographic, such as when physical barriers separate populations, or reproductive, such as when changes prevent successful mating. Speciation rates may be gradual over millions of years or punctuated by rapid changes following events like natural disasters. The evolutionary history and relationships between species can be modeled in cladograms or phylogenetic trees.
Evolution of populations
This document discusses population genetics and microevolution. It explains that evolution occurs at the genetic level through heritable changes in DNA, arising from various sources of genetic variation within populations like mutation, recombination, and random mating. The key concepts of gene pool, allele frequencies, genetic equilibrium, and Hardy-Weinberg principle are introduced to illustrate how evolution can result from changes in the distribution of alleles in a population over generations under the influence of genetic drift or natural selection.
Patterns of heredity and human genetics
This document discusses several patterns of human genetics and heredity, including simple dominant and incomplete dominant inheritance. It provides examples of traits that follow each pattern, such as tongue rolling being a simple dominant trait and flower color in plants being an example of incomplete dominance. The document also covers codominance, polygenic inheritance, sex determination and sex-linked traits such as hemophilia. It explains how traits can be influenced by sex hormones in some cases.
Dna to chromosomes
The document discusses how eukaryotic cells package DNA into chromatin and chromosomes. DNA is found in the form of chromatin during interphase, which involves tightly coiling DNA around histone proteins to form nucleosomes. Nucleosomes are the basic unit of DNA packaging, allowing the 2 meters of DNA in human cells to fit inside the nucleus. Chromosomes only form when cells are preparing to divide and reproduce, allowing DNA to be passed from parent cells to daughter cells.
Species interactions comm ecology
This document summarizes the five major types of species interactions: predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. It defines each interaction and provides examples. Predation involves one species consuming another for food, while competition occurs when two species require the same limited resources. Parasitism benefits one species at the expense of the other. Mutualism is a cooperative relationship that benefits both species, such as pollination. In commensalism, one species benefits while the other is not affected.
The biosphere
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Ecological succession
Ecological succession is the gradual replacement of one community by another over time. It is initiated by disturbances that remove existing organisms or alter resources and habitat. There are two types of succession: primary succession occurs in areas without soil, while secondary succession occurs in areas with existing soil following a disturbance. In both cases, pioneer species are the first to colonize, and succession progresses gradually until an equilibrium climax community dominated by less tolerant species is reached if undisturbed.
Unique properties of water
Water is a polar molecule that is essential for life. Its polarity allows it to dissolve many other polar substances and act as a solvent for biological molecules and reactions in living cells and organisms. Water has unique physical properties, such as a high heat capacity and ability to form hydrogen bonds, that make it well-suited to regulate temperature and support life processes on Earth. The polarity and hydrogen bonding of water molecules also allow water to have high surface tension and influence many other physical phenomena.
Cells of the six kingdoms
There are six kingdoms that classify life on Earth - Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are prokaryotic and unicellular, while Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia are eukaryotic. Protista can be unicellular or multicellular, Fungi and Plantae are multicellular, and Animalia are always multicellular. The kingdoms differ in their cell structures, body forms, and modes of nutrition, which can include photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, heterotrophic nutrition like phagocytosis, or secretion and absorption of enzymes
Cells
Cells are the basic units of life. All living things are made of cells, and cells come only from other living cells. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, and eukaryotic cells which have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. The document goes on to describe the structures and functions of various cell organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cell membrane, and others. It also compares the differences between plant and animal cells.
Introduction to ecology 2
This document provides an introduction to ecology, including definitions of key terms and concepts. It explains that ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environments. It describes the different levels of ecological organization from the biosphere down to the individual organism. It also defines biomes as large geographical areas with similar climates and ecosystems, and lists some major biomes such as tundra, taiga, and tropical rainforest. Finally, it discusses adaptations as traits that enhance an organism's survival and are maintained by natural selection.
Characteristics of life
This document outlines the 8 characteristics of living organisms: 1) unique biochemistry, 2) organization and cells, 3) response to stimulus, 4) homeostasis, 5) metabolism, 6) growth and development, 7) reproduction, and 8) adaptation and evolution. Each characteristic is defined and an example is provided to illustrate the meaning. The document explains that all living things share fundamental biochemical similarities and that cells are the basic functional units of living things.
Hierarchy of biology additional notes
The document discusses several key topics in biology including cells, tissues, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere. It explains that cells are the basic structural and functional units of all life on Earth and can be either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Tissues, populations, and communities are discussed in the context of multicellular organisms. Ecosystems are natural systems consisting of biotic and abiotic factors in an area, while biomes represent major communities with similar environmental conditions over large geographic areas. Finally, the biosphere encompasses all global ecosystems within the zones of air, land, and water where life exists.
Methods used by biologists
Biologists use several methods to study organisms including making inferences based on observations and prior knowledge, direct observation using the five senses to detect things in experiments and record events, and both qualitative observations using words, diagrams, pictures, colors, odors and sounds as well as quantitative observations involving numerical data through measurements, calculations and graphs which must include units when reporting raw or processed data.
Hierarchy of biology
This document outlines the levels of organization in biology from the subatomic to the biosphere, as well as the core concepts covered in biology. It begins with subatomic particles and atoms/ions, then moves up through compounds, nanosystems, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems, organisms, populations and communities, ecosystems, biomes and the biosphere. It also lists the five core ideas typically covered in biology: unity and diversity, structure and function, energy and regulation, interdependence, and science, technology and society.
Introduction to HBS: Unifying Themes
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What is biology and Why study biology?
Biology is the study of living things, life processes, habitats, interactions, history and future of life. It examines all kingdoms including animals, plants, fungi, protists, eubacteria and archaebacteria. Studying biology is important because living things are interdependent and human existence relies on other organisms. Understanding biology has allowed humans to develop agriculture, solve medical problems, and be curious about their place in the world. Continued discovery will provide knowledge to improve lives and ensure a healthy future for our planet.
Antigens and antibodies
Antigens are substances that cause the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens can be external, like bacteria or viruses, or internal, like bacterial toxins or damaged cells. Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to antigens. Each antibody targets a specific antigen. When an antibody binds to its matching antigen, it helps protect the body or tags antigens for destruction.
Body defenses against infection
The document summarizes the body's immune defenses against infection. It describes two main types of immunity: innate immunity, which provides nonspecific defenses like skin barriers and phagocytes; and acquired (adaptive) immunity, which develops after exposure and provides pathogen-specific responses using B cells, T cells, antibodies, and immunological memory. The immune system uses successive lines of defense, from physical barriers and phagocytes to inflammation and antibodies, to protect the body. Vaccines help produce active immunity by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed pathogens.
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Four classes of macromolecules
- 1. Four Classes of Macromolecules Notes Booklet: Inside Panels Biological Importance, Dietary Sources, Functional Groups
- 2. Carbohydrates • Biological Importance • Very abundant in nature • Preferred energy source for most organisms • Photosynthesis directly produces glucose • Cellulose is the most abundant terrestrial biomolecule • Energy is extracted from glucose during cellular respiration • Make up cell walls • plants, bacteria, fungi, algae • Make up exoskeletons • arthropods, insects
- 3. Carbohydrates Dietary Sources • Fruits, honey, milk • Vegetables, grains Functional Groups • Hydroxyl (-OH)
- 4. Lipids • Biological Importance • Long term energy storage • A gram of fat stores twice as much energy as a gram of starch • Lots of C-H bonds (high-energy bonds) • Cell membranes would NOT exist (there for no cells, no life as we know it) • Phospholipid bilayer • Biological markers (glycolipids)
- 5. Lipids Dietary Sources • Animal fats • Plants: nuts, seeds (oils) Functional Groups • Hydroxyl (-OH) • Phosphate (-PO4) • Carbonyl (-C=O)
- 6. Proteins • Biological Importance • Determine the structure and function of cells! • Do the WORK of cells • Every living cell contains 100s – 1000s of proteins • ~50% the dry mass of a cell is protein! • Every dynamic function of a living thing depends on proteins • Regulate metabolism • Biomarkers (glycoproteins) • Human proteome • Over 19,000 proteins identified • Expected # of human proteins = 250,000 – one million!
- 7. Proteins Dietary Sources • Animals • Plants Functional Groups • Amino (-NH2) • Carboxyl (-COOH)
- 8. Nucleic Acids • Biological Importance • Reproduction (cellular and organism level) • DNA controls its own reproduction • RNA production is controlled by DNA • Protein production is controlled by DNA and RNA • DNA is like computer software • RNA and proteins are like the hardware • DNA contains a code for the production of PROTEINS! • Human genome • About 20,000 genes code for proteins
- 9. Nucleic Acids Dietary Sources • Almost every type of food has DNA in it! • Raw foods = highest amount of DNA • Unprocessed • Uncooked Functional Groups • Phosphate (-PO4) • Hydroxyl (-OH) • Amino (-NH2)
- 10. ATP • Biological Importance • Life processes require a constant supply of energy • ATP is the molecular unit of energy for cells to do work • ATP fuels cellular metabolism! • ATP stores and transfers energy in cells! • Covalent bonds between –PO4 are high-energy • Hydrolysis of ATP releases high energy that is used by the cell to drive its activities • Reverse reaction is a special type of reaction called PHOSPHORYLATION. • Ingested nutrients are converted to ATP
- 11. ATP Dietary Sources • ATP is not directly supplied in the diet • Nutrients in the diet are converted to ATP in cells Functional Groups • Phosphate (-PO4) • Amino (-NH2) • Hydroxyl (-OH)