1. Cosmetics are products used to cleanse, beautify, and alter appearances without affecting structure or function. Their use dates back to ancient civilizations for purposes like protection from elements and indications of class.
2. Modern cosmetics mainly aim to enhance attractiveness, improve self-esteem, and prevent aging. They are classified into categories like skin, hair, and oral care products.
3. Surfactants are key ingredients in cleansing products that work by lowering surface tension to remove oils, dirt, and bacteria from the skin and hair through mechanisms like roll-up, emulsification, penetration, and solubilization. Their ability to form micelles above a critical concentration concentration promotes foam
Perfumes, Classification, Perfume Ingredients listed as allergens in EU regul...SimranDhiman12
This document summarizes the key aspects of perfumes, including their composition, manufacturing process, classification, and ingredients. Perfumes are mixtures of essential oils, fixatives, and solvents that are blended according to a formula. They are classified based on concentration and longevity. The major steps in manufacturing include collection of aromatic sources, extraction of oils, blending, and aging. Perfumes contain top, middle, and base notes that create the harmonious scent. They also list common allergens that must be disclosed on cosmetic labels in the EU.
Surfactants, emollients and rheological AdditivespptxNileshMuttalwad1
This document provides an overview of surfactants, emollients, and rheological additives used in cosmetic formulations. It defines these ingredients and discusses their classification and applications. Surfactants are classified as anionic, cationic, non-ionic, or amphoteric depending on their hydrophilic group. Common surfactants used in cosmetics include sodium lauryl sulfate, decyl glucoside, and cetyl alcohol. Emollients are moisturizing agents that form a protective film on skin, examples include lanolin, cholesterol, and fatty acid esters. Rheological additives are used to control the flow properties and stability of formulations.
This document provides information about lipstick formulation and manufacturing. It defines lipstick as a cosmetic product containing pigments, oils, waxes, and emollients that applies color and texture to the lips. It discusses the key components of lipstick including waxes, oils, bromo mixtures, colors, preservatives, and fragrances. It also covers common formulation and moulding related problems in lipstick production such as sweating, bleeding, and deformation. Evaluation methods for finished lipstick products like color control, melting point determination, and softening point are also outlined.
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant oils, fixatives, and solvents used to scent the body or living spaces. It has been used for centuries, originally for religious purposes and now as a sign of sophistication. Perfume is made through extracting oils from plants or animals, blending them according to a formula, aging the blend, and mixing it with alcohol as a solvent. It is classified based on oil concentration and lasting time. Perfume triggers emotions and memories through scent and is used to increase attractiveness. Future perfumes may increasingly use synthetic chemicals and target pheromone receptors in the brain.
Formulation building blocks soap and syndet bars pptbhagy212
This document discusses formulation building blocks for soaps and syndet bars. It defines soaps as sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids made from natural raw materials, while syndets are cleansing bars containing less than 10% soap that are often marketed as "soap free." The document compares the advantages and disadvantages of soaps and syndets, describes common raw materials used in each including fats, oils, and alkalis, and provides typical ingredient ranges. It also outlines the cold, semi-boiled, and full boiled manufacturing processes and parameters for evaluating performance.
Surfactants classification and application in cosmetics SUJITHA MARY
This document discusses surfactants, their classification and applications in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Surfactants are amphipathic molecules with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail that lower surface tension. They are classified as anionic, cationic, non-ionic or amphoteric based on the nature of the hydrophilic group. Common applications include use as emulsifying agents, for foaming and cleansing purposes like in shampoos, and as wetting agents. Anionic, cationic, non-ionic and amphoteric surfactants are used for different purposes depending on their properties like detergency and foaming ability or mildness.
A presentation about anti-aging creams giving a brief of aging, anti-aging cosmetics, some general and some modern anti-aging agents and their mechanism of action, some detailed info of marketed formulations
Several factors can influence the efficacy of preservatives in pharmaceutical products: (1) Interactions between preservatives and other formulation components like hydrocolloids, emulsifiers, and tablet additives can diminish preservative activity; (2) The properties of preservatives such as solubility, stability, and reactivity with container materials impact their antimicrobial properties; (3) Containers and closures can react with or allow penetration of preservatives and may introduce microbial contamination.
Perfumes, Classification, Perfume Ingredients listed as allergens in EU regul...SimranDhiman12
This document summarizes the key aspects of perfumes, including their composition, manufacturing process, classification, and ingredients. Perfumes are mixtures of essential oils, fixatives, and solvents that are blended according to a formula. They are classified based on concentration and longevity. The major steps in manufacturing include collection of aromatic sources, extraction of oils, blending, and aging. Perfumes contain top, middle, and base notes that create the harmonious scent. They also list common allergens that must be disclosed on cosmetic labels in the EU.
Surfactants, emollients and rheological AdditivespptxNileshMuttalwad1
This document provides an overview of surfactants, emollients, and rheological additives used in cosmetic formulations. It defines these ingredients and discusses their classification and applications. Surfactants are classified as anionic, cationic, non-ionic, or amphoteric depending on their hydrophilic group. Common surfactants used in cosmetics include sodium lauryl sulfate, decyl glucoside, and cetyl alcohol. Emollients are moisturizing agents that form a protective film on skin, examples include lanolin, cholesterol, and fatty acid esters. Rheological additives are used to control the flow properties and stability of formulations.
This document provides information about lipstick formulation and manufacturing. It defines lipstick as a cosmetic product containing pigments, oils, waxes, and emollients that applies color and texture to the lips. It discusses the key components of lipstick including waxes, oils, bromo mixtures, colors, preservatives, and fragrances. It also covers common formulation and moulding related problems in lipstick production such as sweating, bleeding, and deformation. Evaluation methods for finished lipstick products like color control, melting point determination, and softening point are also outlined.
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant oils, fixatives, and solvents used to scent the body or living spaces. It has been used for centuries, originally for religious purposes and now as a sign of sophistication. Perfume is made through extracting oils from plants or animals, blending them according to a formula, aging the blend, and mixing it with alcohol as a solvent. It is classified based on oil concentration and lasting time. Perfume triggers emotions and memories through scent and is used to increase attractiveness. Future perfumes may increasingly use synthetic chemicals and target pheromone receptors in the brain.
Formulation building blocks soap and syndet bars pptbhagy212
This document discusses formulation building blocks for soaps and syndet bars. It defines soaps as sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids made from natural raw materials, while syndets are cleansing bars containing less than 10% soap that are often marketed as "soap free." The document compares the advantages and disadvantages of soaps and syndets, describes common raw materials used in each including fats, oils, and alkalis, and provides typical ingredient ranges. It also outlines the cold, semi-boiled, and full boiled manufacturing processes and parameters for evaluating performance.
Surfactants classification and application in cosmetics SUJITHA MARY
This document discusses surfactants, their classification and applications in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Surfactants are amphipathic molecules with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail that lower surface tension. They are classified as anionic, cationic, non-ionic or amphoteric based on the nature of the hydrophilic group. Common applications include use as emulsifying agents, for foaming and cleansing purposes like in shampoos, and as wetting agents. Anionic, cationic, non-ionic and amphoteric surfactants are used for different purposes depending on their properties like detergency and foaming ability or mildness.
A presentation about anti-aging creams giving a brief of aging, anti-aging cosmetics, some general and some modern anti-aging agents and their mechanism of action, some detailed info of marketed formulations
Several factors can influence the efficacy of preservatives in pharmaceutical products: (1) Interactions between preservatives and other formulation components like hydrocolloids, emulsifiers, and tablet additives can diminish preservative activity; (2) The properties of preservatives such as solubility, stability, and reactivity with container materials impact their antimicrobial properties; (3) Containers and closures can react with or allow penetration of preservatives and may introduce microbial contamination.
This document discusses shampoo, including its definition, functions, composition, types, manufacturing factors, and evaluation. Shampoo is used to remove oils, dirt, and other contaminants from hair. The key components are surfactants such as sodium laureth sulfate that provide cleansing properties. Other common ingredients include preservatives, conditioning agents, thickeners, fragrances, and pH adjusters. Various types of shampoo are discussed such as powder, liquid, oil, medicated, baby, and herbal varieties. Manufacturing considers safety, lathering, and ease of use. Shampoo is evaluated based on parameters like pH, foaming ability, viscosity, dirt removal, and effects on skin
This document provides an overview of semi-solid dosage forms such as ointments, creams, pastes, and gels. It discusses their ideal properties and examples. It also describes the basic introduction, ingredients used in preparation including bases, preservatives, emulsifiers, and gelling agents. Methods of preparation like trituration, fusion, and emulsification are covered. The preparation of oil and aqueous phases and mixing of phases is explained. Finally, the document discusses the storage conditions and references for semi-solid dosage forms.
This document summarizes colors used in cosmetics. It discusses regulatory bodies that classify and approve color additives. Colors are classified as either organic or inorganic, and as subject to certification or exempt. Both natural and synthetic colors are permitted. Common natural colors discussed include annatto, beta-carotene, caramel, carmine, chlorophyllin copper complex, henna and guanine. Inorganic colors like mica, titanium dioxide, iron oxides and zinc oxide are also summarized. Specific regulations around various certified colors are provided in tables. Henna is highlighted for its hair coloring properties from Lawsonia inermis leaves.
Addressing dry skin, acne , pigmentation & wrinklesAlexa Jacob
This document provides information on addressing dry skin, acne, pigmentation, and wrinkles. It discusses the definition, causes, and treatment of each condition. For dry skin, common causes include weather, heating/cooling, tight clothing, and aging. Treatments include moisturizers, emollients, and keratolytic creams. For acne, causes are genes, hormones, bacteria, and diet/stress. Treatments include topical retinoids, antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, and azelaic acid. Pigmentation disorders include hyperpigmentation from sun exposure and hypopigmentation from melanin depletion. Treatments are hydroquinone, azelaic acid, glycolic acid,
This document discusses controversial ingredients in cosmetics including parabens, formaldehyde liberators, and 1,4-dioxane. It outlines the common uses of these ingredients, potential health concerns like cancer and irritation, and regulations regarding their use. Parabens are widely used preservatives that may disrupt the endocrine system and have been linked to breast cancer. Formaldehyde and formaldehyde-releasing preservatives are found in many personal care products and are classified as carcinogenic. 1,4-dioxane is a probable carcinogen that can form as a contaminant in ingredients processed with ethylene oxide. Avoiding these ingredients requires reading labels and choosing products certified as formaldehyde-free or
Cleansing and care needs for face eyelid lips hands feet nail scalp neck bodyRahul Krishnan
This document provides information on various skin, eye, lip, nail, and scalp care products. It discusses cleansers, face washes, moisturizers, fairness creams, and other cosmetic products. It also covers ingredients and formulations for lipsticks, lip balms, lip gloss, lip liner, eye shadows, mascara, eye liner, and other eye and lip care products. The document is intended to educate readers on cleansing and care needs for different areas of the face and recommendations for appropriate cosmetic products.
The document summarizes key aspects of skin and nail care. It discusses specific considerations for different areas like the hands, feet, and scalp. It also covers common skin conditions like calluses, warts, and fungal infections. Additionally, the document provides details on moisturizer formulation, including common active ingredients and additive types used to improve delivery and benefits.
Introduction-notes-classification-manufacturing process-outline-composition-sources of fragrances-EU Regulations for perfumes-natural and synthetic allergens to human
Formulation Building blocks: Building blocks for different product formulatio...PRAJAKTASAWANT33
Building blocks for different product formulations of
cosmetics/cosmeceuticals. Surfactants - Classification and application. Emollients,
rheological additives: classification and application.
This document discusses the formulation and evaluation of various cosmetic products. It begins by defining cosmetics and their classification. It then covers formulations for different types of creams, lotions, powders and color cosmetics like lipsticks and rouges. Specific formulations are provided for products like cleansing cream, cold cream, sunscreen lotion, face powder, lipstick etc. along with ideal properties and ingredients for each type of cosmetic.
Cleansing and care need for face skin,eye lids,lips,hands,feet,nail,scalp,neck,bDRx Amit Chaudhari
Hi friends these topics mainly related to cosmetic biological aspects in which Cleansing and Care need for face skin, scalp, Nail, lips, eye,body and deodorants preparation are explained ..I hope you will like my slides and if any queries then comments .
This document provides an overview of perfumes. It defines perfumes as mixtures of fragrant essential oils, fixatives, and solvents used to provide a pleasant scent. It discusses the history of perfumes and describes their composition, classification, ingredients, allergens, and proper storage. The key information presented includes the three main components of perfumes - essential oils, fixatives, and solvents - as well as the top, middle, and base notes that provide perfumes' scents.
Myself Omkar Tipugade , M pharm , Shree Santkrupa College of Pharmacy , Ghogaon , Karad ( Maharashtra).
I upload the presentation on sun protection & type of Skin and sun screen agent depend on skin type , and also brief information about the cosmetic & cosmeceutical product.
1) Cosmeceuticals are products that combine characteristics of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals by making claims of drug-like benefits, though they are not regulated as drugs.
2) Many anti-aging cosmeceuticals contain ingredients like vitamins and antioxidants, but these may not be in effective concentrations and formulations to produce results.
3) Marketing of cosmeceuticals often uses tricks and exaggerated claims, suggesting they can do things like penetrate skin to add collagen or use nanotechnology to invisibly fill wrinkles, while the real effects are more limited to temporary moisturizing or minor improvements to skin condition.
This document discusses the formulation and evaluation of cosmetic products like face powder. It classifies cosmetics and face powder, describing their key characteristics and functions. It outlines the main raw materials used in face powder formulations like titanium dioxide for its inert properties and ability to blend with color bases. The document details the general manufacturing process for face powder including color extension, base powder preparation, compaction, and provides a sample loose face powder formula and manufacturing method.
HERBAL COSMETICS BY PRIVATE BODIES LIKE COSMOS.pptxpurvayeole1
GUIDELINES FOR HERBAL COSMETICS BY PRIVATE BODIES LIKE COSMOS
Preservatives
Emollients
Foaming agents
What are Cosmetics?
What are Herbal Cosmetics?
Advantages of Herbal Cosmetics
What is Cosmos?
Guiding principle of Cosmos
Certification signatures & Benefits
What the Cosmos standard covers?
Approval of ingredients
Cosmos standard:
Origin and processing of ingredients.
Composition of total product.
Storage, manufacturing and packaging.
Environment management.
Labelling and communication.
Inspection, certification and control.
Cosmetics regulatory: includes Regulatory provision relating to manufacture of cosmetics, Schedule M (II) of D & C rule 1945 deals with requirements for the factory premises for the manufacture of cosmetic, requirement of plant & equipment, conditions of licencing, regulatory provision on sale of cosmetics, loan licence, Regulatory provision relating to import of cosmetics, offences & penalties, List of amending Act and adaptation orders.
Miscelles are aggregates of surfactant molecules that form above the critical micelle concentration in a solution. The long hydrophilic tails of surfactant molecules coil to bind water molecules, while the hydrophobic tails cluster together at the core of the miscelle. In polar solvents, the hydrophilic heads point outward and hydrophobic tails inward. In nonpolar solvents, the arrangement is reversed. Miscelles allow insoluble compounds to dissolve within their cores and are important for nutrient absorption in the body. They are also used for targeted drug delivery and as emulsifiers in detergents.
This document discusses shampoo, including its definition, functions, composition, types, manufacturing factors, and evaluation. Shampoo is used to remove oils, dirt, and other contaminants from hair. The key components are surfactants such as sodium laureth sulfate that provide cleansing properties. Other common ingredients include preservatives, conditioning agents, thickeners, fragrances, and pH adjusters. Various types of shampoo are discussed such as powder, liquid, oil, medicated, baby, and herbal varieties. Manufacturing considers safety, lathering, and ease of use. Shampoo is evaluated based on parameters like pH, foaming ability, viscosity, dirt removal, and effects on skin
This document provides an overview of semi-solid dosage forms such as ointments, creams, pastes, and gels. It discusses their ideal properties and examples. It also describes the basic introduction, ingredients used in preparation including bases, preservatives, emulsifiers, and gelling agents. Methods of preparation like trituration, fusion, and emulsification are covered. The preparation of oil and aqueous phases and mixing of phases is explained. Finally, the document discusses the storage conditions and references for semi-solid dosage forms.
This document summarizes colors used in cosmetics. It discusses regulatory bodies that classify and approve color additives. Colors are classified as either organic or inorganic, and as subject to certification or exempt. Both natural and synthetic colors are permitted. Common natural colors discussed include annatto, beta-carotene, caramel, carmine, chlorophyllin copper complex, henna and guanine. Inorganic colors like mica, titanium dioxide, iron oxides and zinc oxide are also summarized. Specific regulations around various certified colors are provided in tables. Henna is highlighted for its hair coloring properties from Lawsonia inermis leaves.
Addressing dry skin, acne , pigmentation & wrinklesAlexa Jacob
This document provides information on addressing dry skin, acne, pigmentation, and wrinkles. It discusses the definition, causes, and treatment of each condition. For dry skin, common causes include weather, heating/cooling, tight clothing, and aging. Treatments include moisturizers, emollients, and keratolytic creams. For acne, causes are genes, hormones, bacteria, and diet/stress. Treatments include topical retinoids, antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, and azelaic acid. Pigmentation disorders include hyperpigmentation from sun exposure and hypopigmentation from melanin depletion. Treatments are hydroquinone, azelaic acid, glycolic acid,
This document discusses controversial ingredients in cosmetics including parabens, formaldehyde liberators, and 1,4-dioxane. It outlines the common uses of these ingredients, potential health concerns like cancer and irritation, and regulations regarding their use. Parabens are widely used preservatives that may disrupt the endocrine system and have been linked to breast cancer. Formaldehyde and formaldehyde-releasing preservatives are found in many personal care products and are classified as carcinogenic. 1,4-dioxane is a probable carcinogen that can form as a contaminant in ingredients processed with ethylene oxide. Avoiding these ingredients requires reading labels and choosing products certified as formaldehyde-free or
Cleansing and care needs for face eyelid lips hands feet nail scalp neck bodyRahul Krishnan
This document provides information on various skin, eye, lip, nail, and scalp care products. It discusses cleansers, face washes, moisturizers, fairness creams, and other cosmetic products. It also covers ingredients and formulations for lipsticks, lip balms, lip gloss, lip liner, eye shadows, mascara, eye liner, and other eye and lip care products. The document is intended to educate readers on cleansing and care needs for different areas of the face and recommendations for appropriate cosmetic products.
The document summarizes key aspects of skin and nail care. It discusses specific considerations for different areas like the hands, feet, and scalp. It also covers common skin conditions like calluses, warts, and fungal infections. Additionally, the document provides details on moisturizer formulation, including common active ingredients and additive types used to improve delivery and benefits.
Introduction-notes-classification-manufacturing process-outline-composition-sources of fragrances-EU Regulations for perfumes-natural and synthetic allergens to human
Formulation Building blocks: Building blocks for different product formulatio...PRAJAKTASAWANT33
Building blocks for different product formulations of
cosmetics/cosmeceuticals. Surfactants - Classification and application. Emollients,
rheological additives: classification and application.
This document discusses the formulation and evaluation of various cosmetic products. It begins by defining cosmetics and their classification. It then covers formulations for different types of creams, lotions, powders and color cosmetics like lipsticks and rouges. Specific formulations are provided for products like cleansing cream, cold cream, sunscreen lotion, face powder, lipstick etc. along with ideal properties and ingredients for each type of cosmetic.
Cleansing and care need for face skin,eye lids,lips,hands,feet,nail,scalp,neck,bDRx Amit Chaudhari
Hi friends these topics mainly related to cosmetic biological aspects in which Cleansing and Care need for face skin, scalp, Nail, lips, eye,body and deodorants preparation are explained ..I hope you will like my slides and if any queries then comments .
This document provides an overview of perfumes. It defines perfumes as mixtures of fragrant essential oils, fixatives, and solvents used to provide a pleasant scent. It discusses the history of perfumes and describes their composition, classification, ingredients, allergens, and proper storage. The key information presented includes the three main components of perfumes - essential oils, fixatives, and solvents - as well as the top, middle, and base notes that provide perfumes' scents.
Myself Omkar Tipugade , M pharm , Shree Santkrupa College of Pharmacy , Ghogaon , Karad ( Maharashtra).
I upload the presentation on sun protection & type of Skin and sun screen agent depend on skin type , and also brief information about the cosmetic & cosmeceutical product.
1) Cosmeceuticals are products that combine characteristics of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals by making claims of drug-like benefits, though they are not regulated as drugs.
2) Many anti-aging cosmeceuticals contain ingredients like vitamins and antioxidants, but these may not be in effective concentrations and formulations to produce results.
3) Marketing of cosmeceuticals often uses tricks and exaggerated claims, suggesting they can do things like penetrate skin to add collagen or use nanotechnology to invisibly fill wrinkles, while the real effects are more limited to temporary moisturizing or minor improvements to skin condition.
This document discusses the formulation and evaluation of cosmetic products like face powder. It classifies cosmetics and face powder, describing their key characteristics and functions. It outlines the main raw materials used in face powder formulations like titanium dioxide for its inert properties and ability to blend with color bases. The document details the general manufacturing process for face powder including color extension, base powder preparation, compaction, and provides a sample loose face powder formula and manufacturing method.
HERBAL COSMETICS BY PRIVATE BODIES LIKE COSMOS.pptxpurvayeole1
GUIDELINES FOR HERBAL COSMETICS BY PRIVATE BODIES LIKE COSMOS
Preservatives
Emollients
Foaming agents
What are Cosmetics?
What are Herbal Cosmetics?
Advantages of Herbal Cosmetics
What is Cosmos?
Guiding principle of Cosmos
Certification signatures & Benefits
What the Cosmos standard covers?
Approval of ingredients
Cosmos standard:
Origin and processing of ingredients.
Composition of total product.
Storage, manufacturing and packaging.
Environment management.
Labelling and communication.
Inspection, certification and control.
Cosmetics regulatory: includes Regulatory provision relating to manufacture of cosmetics, Schedule M (II) of D & C rule 1945 deals with requirements for the factory premises for the manufacture of cosmetic, requirement of plant & equipment, conditions of licencing, regulatory provision on sale of cosmetics, loan licence, Regulatory provision relating to import of cosmetics, offences & penalties, List of amending Act and adaptation orders.
Miscelles are aggregates of surfactant molecules that form above the critical micelle concentration in a solution. The long hydrophilic tails of surfactant molecules coil to bind water molecules, while the hydrophobic tails cluster together at the core of the miscelle. In polar solvents, the hydrophilic heads point outward and hydrophobic tails inward. In nonpolar solvents, the arrangement is reversed. Miscelles allow insoluble compounds to dissolve within their cores and are important for nutrient absorption in the body. They are also used for targeted drug delivery and as emulsifiers in detergents.
This document provides an overview of surfactants and their applications in pharmacy. It begins by defining surfactants as substances that reduce surface tension between two phases. The document then discusses the different types of surfactants, including nonionic, anionic, cationic, and amphoteric surfactants. It explains how surfactants work to lower surface tension and form micelles. Key concepts covered include the critical micellar concentration and factors that influence micelle formation. The document concludes by describing various applications of surfactants in pharmacy, such as for emulsions, suppositories, respiratory therapies, and transdermal drug delivery.
SURFACTANT CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATION.pptxShamsElfalah
This document provides an overview of surfactant classification and applications. It defines surfactants as substances that lower surface tension and interfacial energies when present at low concentrations. Surfactants are classified as ionic (cationic, anionic, amphoteric) or non-ionic. Their special molecular structure allows them to solubilize insoluble substances. Common applications of surfactants include home care products, personal care products, health care products, industrial and institutional cleaning, crop care, and industrial uses. Surfactants are widely used due to their ability to mobilize and mix substances that do not normally combine.
Humectants are hygroscopic substances that attract and retain moisture. They are commonly used in cosmetics, foods, and medicines to prevent drying out. The main types of humectants are inorganic, metal-organic, and organic humectants. Organic humectants like glycerin, sorbitol, and propylene glycol are most widely used in cosmetics due to their favorable properties such as low toxicity and compatibility with other ingredients. Humectants help control products by reducing the rate of water loss and decreasing fluidity over time. They also help retain moisture in the residual film left on skin after product application.
permeation enhancers by Hemant Chalaune ist M pharm Gaule Jeevan
This document discusses skin as a drug delivery route and permeation enhancers. It begins with an overview of skin structure and properties that create a barrier to drug delivery. It then discusses permeation enhancers, classifying them as chemical or physical and describing examples from each class. The document explains several specific permeation enhancers in depth, including their proposed mechanisms of action, such as disrupting lipid packing or increasing hydration. It concludes that permeation enhancers are crucial components for improving drug bioavailability through the skin.
This document presents a comparative study between silicone and fatty surfactants used in shampoos. Silicone surfactants like dimethicone copolyol are introduced as an alternative to commonly used fatty surfactants like SLES. Various properties of these surfactants are studied such as surface tension, foaming ability, wetting, cleansing and conditioning effects. Silicone surfactants are found to be non-irritating and provide a silky feel to hair and skin. Different shampoo formulations containing varying ratios of silicone and fatty surfactants are developed and their stability is evaluated to identify the optimal formulations for further analysis.
Surfactants are surface active chemicals that tend to accumulate at interfaces between substances. They contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions that allow them to interact with water and lower the surface tension. There are several types of surfactants classified by the charge of their hydrophilic head groups, including anionic, cationic, nonionic, and amphoteric. Surfactant molecules arrange themselves at interfaces and can also form micelles in water above a critical concentration, with hydrophobic tails associating in the micelle core and hydrophilic heads interacting with water. Surfactants have many uses in textile wet processing such as wetting, dispersing, emulsifying, and dye fixation.
Introduction and classification, anatomy of skin and factors affecting absorption, Formulation ,preparation, packaging, labeling and storage of ointments, Formulation, preparation, packaging, labeling and storage of jellies, creams, pastes.
This document provides information about liposomes, which are spherical vesicles composed of phospholipid bilayers that can encapsulate aqueous solutions. It defines liposomes and describes their structure as concentric bilayers enclosing an aqueous core. Various types of liposomes are described based on structural parameters like lamellarity and size. Methods for preparing liposomes are outlined, including mechanical dispersion techniques, solvent dispersion techniques, and detergent removal methods. Advantages of liposomal drug delivery are also summarized.
Surfactants are amphiphilic molecules that contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions. They are able to interact with both polar and nonpolar substances. Surfactants lower the surface tension of liquids and allow mixtures of normally immiscible substances, such as oil and water, to form stable emulsions. They are widely used in industries such as detergents, personal care products, food, drugs, and others due to properties like wetting, foaming, emulsification, and solubilization. Surfactants are classified based on the charge of the hydrophilic head group into anionic, cationic, nonionic, and zwitterionic types.
Detergents contain various active ingredients like surfactants, builders, solvents, and enzymes that help remove dirt from surfaces. Surfactants are the primary cleaning agents that use their hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties to break the bond between dirt and surfaces and suspend dirt particles in the cleaning solution. Builders help reduce water hardness by binding with metal ions and protect surfactants' cleaning ability. Solvents aid in dissolving oils and greases that water cannot remove on its own. A variety of ingredients work together synergistically to achieve optimal cleaning.
This document provides an overview of soap and detergent chemistry as it relates to cleaning. It discusses the role of water in carrying soils and surfactants to surfaces. Surfactants like soaps reduce water's surface tension to allow it to spread and wet surfaces for effective cleaning. Soaps are made through saponification reactions between fats/oils and bases. Their molecules have hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends that allow them to suspend dirt particles in water for removal. However, soaps do not work as well in hard water due to insoluble precipitates formed with calcium and magnesium ions. Modern detergents are more versatile for current cleaning needs.
1) The document discusses semi-solids like ointments, creams, pastes and gels. It describes the three layers of skin - epidermis, dermis and hypodermis - and factors that influence skin penetration like vehicle, pH, drug properties, skin conditions and more.
2) It also discusses mechanisms of drug permeation through skin and various penetration enhancement techniques using chemicals or physical methods. Common chemical penetration enhancers mentioned include surfactants, fatty acids, alcohols, dimethyl sulfoxide and others.
3) The mechanisms of different penetration enhancers are explained, such as their effects on skin lipids and proteins. Ideal properties of penetration enhancers and their
This document discusses semi-solid dosage forms such as ointments, pastes, creams, and gels used for dermal drug delivery. It describes the three potential routes of drug penetration through the skin including via sweat ducts, across the stratum corneum, and through hair follicles. Factors that influence dermal penetration include biological factors like skin condition, age, and blood flow as well as physicochemical factors like skin hydration, temperature, drug concentration, and molecular size. Common bases used for semi-solid formulations are discussed including oleaginous, absorption, emulsion, and water soluble bases. Excipients commonly included in these formulations and their purposes are also outlined.
This document discusses solubilization and surfactants. It defines solubilization as preparing an isotropic solution of an insoluble substance using a component or suitable method. Solubility is affected by the nature of solute and solvent, temperature, pressure, and particle size. Surfactants lower surface tension and act as detergents, wetting agents, etc. When added to water, surfactants self-assemble into micelles with hydrophilic heads facing out and hydrophobic tails inside in spherical, rod, or lamellar shapes above the critical micelle concentration. Micelle formation is driven by thermodynamics to increase entropy.
The document discusses different types of colloidal systems including emulsions, sols, gels, and foams. It provides examples of each type in foods such as salad dressing as an emulsion, gravy as a sol, baked custard as a gel, and egg white foam as a foam. It also describes key properties of colloids like small particle size visible only under microscope and Brownian motion. Common colloidal systems in foods, properties of each type, and methods of formation and stabilization are summarized.
This document summarizes a study on determining the critical micelle concentrations of various biodegradable surfactants. Specifically, it analyzes sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), polysorbate 80 (Tween 80), and saponin extracted from soapnuts. The critical micelle concentration of each surfactant was determined by measuring the conductivity and pH of solutions with varying concentrations and plotting the results. The study found the CMC of SDS to be 8mM, Tween 80 to be 0.012mM, and extracted saponin by soaking soapnut pericarp in water and monitoring conductivity and pH over time.
Similar to Formulation of Cosmetic Product.pptx (20)
This document summarizes the principles and components of lithium-ion batteries. It discusses that lithium-ion batteries generate electrical energy through redox reactions that shuttle lithium ions between a graphite anode and transition metal oxide cathode. Key components include the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separators. During charging, lithium ions move from the cathode to the anode. During discharging, lithium ions move back from the anode to the cathode. Advantages of lithium-ion batteries include their high energy density, low weight, and ability to produce high voltages. Applications include use in electronics, electric vehicles, and power tools.
22CYL22 & Chemistry Laboratory for Mechanical Systems(Mech - DO).pptkowshalya21
Determination of Dissolved oxygen in the given Wastewater Sample. You are provided with a standard solution of 0.01N potassium dichromate and an approximate soultion of sodium thiosulphate.
22CYL11 & Chemistry Laboratory for Electrical Systems (EIE-Alkalinity).pptkowshalya21
This document provides instructions for estimating the alkalinity of river and borewell water samples. It defines alkalinity as the ability of water to neutralize acids and lists the main ions responsible. The procedure involves titrating water samples against a standardized hydrochloric acid solution using phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators to determine the concentrations of hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions present. The end points of each indicator are noted and alkalinity values calculated based on the titration volumes and a reference table provided. The type and amounts of alkalinity ions determined for each water sample are to be reported as the results.
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Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
2. Cosmetics
“Articles intended to be used by
means of rubbing, sprinkling or by
similar applications to the human
body for cleansing, beautifying,
promoting attractiveness, or altering
the appearance without affecting
structure or function and maintaining
health of the skin and hair.”
3. History of Cosmetics
•Cosmetics are becoming inevitable part of life and
used regularly by increasing number of people.
•Exact origin is unknown but archeological excavations
confirm that they were used in early stone age and
traced back to the ancient Egyptians.
•Civilizations have used cosmetics – though not always
recognizable compared to today’s advanced products.
•Cosmetics usage throughout history can be indicative
of a civilization’s practical concerns, such as
•protection from the sun,
•Protection from dryness because of cold
•Irritation from insect bites
•indication of class,
•conventions of beauty
•For spiritual belief/to ward off evil spirits
4. Modern age cosmetics
With ages, most of the purposes
disappeared.
Main purpose of using cosmetics in
modern society.
•Enhance attractiveness
•Improve self esteem
•Promote tranquility
•Personal hygiene
•Prevent ageing
•Protect skin & hair from UV,
pollutants, etc
6. Basic sciences of cleansing
Cleansing – remove dirt, grime and sebum from skin and
hair
Shampoos and body washes (soaps & liquids)
Basic requirement – cleanse (remove oil, dirt &
microorganisms), condition, facilitate cleansing and
fragrance.
Promoting hygiene and cleanliness have been aimed at
removing odors and the bacteria that cause these odors
from the surface of the human body.
7. Sebum glands adjacent to hair follicles emit a lipid-rich
substance called sebum.
Sebum is the semi fluid secretion of the sebaceous
glands of mammals, consisting chiefly of fat, keratin, and
cellular material.
Role of Sebum:
Sebum serves to protect and lubricate the skin and hair.
Sebaceous secretions favor the growth of facultative
anaerobes such as Propionibacterium acnes.
Hair & Skin
8. P.acnes hydrolyses the triglycerides present in
sebum, releasing free fatty acids onto the skin.
The released fatty acids contribute to the acidic
pH of the skin surface (5.4-5.9), which inhibits
the growth of many common pathogens such
as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus
pyogenes (causes skin infections).
Thus the presence of sebum and the symbiotic
microorganisms that it supports may be
beneficial to the health of the skin.
However, buildup of sebum on the skin and hair
is perceived by modern consumers to be
“unclean” and undesirable.
9. Additionally, particulate dust and dirt can adhere to the sebum
layer and this exacerbates the feeling of lack of cleanliness.
Also the accumulation of P.acnes bacterium will result in acnes
and further causing scar on skin surface.
Consequently, the principal aim of today’s cleansing products is
to remove oils, particulate soil, and microorganisms from the
surface of skin and hair.
Because sebum is an oily substance, it cannot be removed by
water alone.
For this reason, surface active agents (surfactants) are
included in personal care cleaning products.
The main purposes of surfactants are to lower the interfacial
tension between the soil and the substrate, to emulsify and/or
solubilize oily soils, and to disperse particulate matter.
10. Surfactants
Surfactants, are wetting agents that lowers the
surface tension of a liquid, allowing easier
spreading and dispersion
Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are
amphipathic, as they contain both hydrophobic
groups ("tails") and hydrophilic groups ("heads").
Therefore, they are soluble in both oil and water.
11. Classification
Polar hydrophilic head
Non-polar hydrophobic tail – hydrocarbon,
fluorocarbon, or siloxane
Classified based on their polar heads
(hydrophobic tail often similar)
14. surfactant = SURFace ACTing AgeNT.
the term surfactant is not always the one that everyone sticks
with.
It seems that surfactants have several names that all become
applicable depending of the role of the surfactant
For example, where foam is the finished product, the surfactant
used maybe referred to as foaming agents.
Surfactants used in body products, can even be termed as
detergents or soaps.
Or, in the example of shaving creams, surfactants are considered
lubricants because they protect the skin from irritation and the
razor's sharp edge while still allowing the removal of all of the
unwanted hairs.
15. Surfactant and adsorption
For aqueous phases in the absence of oil, at very low
surfactant concentrations the amphipathicity expels
surfactant molecules to the surface, a process called
adsorption.
The driving force for surface adsorption derives from
hydrophobic interaction, which rejects the
hydrocarbon from the aqueous phase.
The adsorbed surfactant molecules maintain intimate
contact with water at the surface as a consequence of
the relatively strong interactions between the
hydrophilic moieties and water at the surface.
These strong interactions can be polar, ionic, Lewis
acid/Lewis base, and London dispersion forces.
The surfactant concentration at which a monolayer of
surfactant molecule adsorbs and covers the surface is
called surface aggregation concentration.
16. Surfactant micelles
As the concentration of surfactant increases,
bilayers/multilayers are likely to form on surfaces.
Surfactant molecule can also form aggregates in aqueous
phase in such a way that they orient their hydrophobic tail
toward neighboring surfactant molecule and their
hydrophilic head towards water or hydrophilic surface.
The surfactant concentration at which surfactant molecules
start to form aggregates such as micelles in solution is
termed as critical micelle concentration(CMC).
18. Surface adsorption of surfactants is favored at low concentrations.
However, above a critical concentration, CMC, the chemical
potential drive of molecules to form large micellar aggregates
becomes favored over surface adsorption.
Micelles can assume a number of different shapes. Indeed the
same surfactant can adopt different micelle shapes depending
upon, for example, the concentration of surfactant, the pH of the
solution, or the presence of salt ions.
Micellization is essentially a phase separation of water from oil,
the extent of phase separation is limited by the need of the
hydrophilic moieties to be in intimate contact with the aqueous
phase.
19. Micellar shape is a consequence of
two opposing forces: the cohesion of
the core due to hydrophobic
interaction, which is limited by the
repulsion between the hydrophilic
moieties
Thus, bulk separation is prevented and
micellar phase separation is favored
by the curvature imposed by the
repulsion between the hydrophilic
moieties at the micelle surface.
20. Decreased repulsion between hydrophobic moieties or
increased steric hindrance between hydrophobic core
molecules causes a decrease in the curvature of the
micelle structure.
The molecules must pack according to intermolecular
forces, and consequently the decrease in curvature forces
the micelles to transition in shape from spheres to elliptical
spheroids to rods to worms to packed rods (hexagonal
phase) to infinite two-dimensional layers (lamellar phase)
to inverse rods and inverse spheroids.
21. Surfactants and Cleansing
Surfactants remove oils from the skin and hair surface
by several mechanisms. There are four main
mechanisms for removing oils:
Roll-up
Emulsification
Penetration and
Solubilization.
22. Rollup Mechanism
Rollup of the oil droplets occurs readily for oils spread on hydrophilic
surfaces.
Surfactant adsorption on the substrate and on the oil surface causes an
increase in the contact angle of the oil at the oil-water-substrate interface.
When the 3-phase contact angle approaches 180 degree, the resultant
interfacial force holding the oil droplet to the surface is overcome by the
wetting tension of the surfactant-covered oil and substrate surfaces, and
the oil rolls up into a droplet that lifts off from the substrate under mild
agitation.
23. Due to the wide variation of surface energies on the skin and hair, the
rollup mechanism is not necessarily predictable.
Moreover, the diversity on oily soils can alter the route by which the
surfactant adsorbs to the soil and the substrate.
For example, the surfactant may adsorb by
encroachment along the surface
through interaction with a previously applied permeable surface
treatment, or
by absorption into the substrate and subsequent diffusion to the
interface (bleached hair)
The rate of rollup varies with the viscosity of the oily soil.
Viscous or crystal-containing oils and waxes tend to rollup slowly and may
require vigorous mechanical application to become dislodged from the
substrate.
24. Emulsification Mechanism
Emulsification is favored when the substrates are relatively hydrophobic and
adsorption of the surfactant at the oil-water interface is facile and results in a
low oil-water interfacial tension.
The resulting low interfacial tension favors expansion of the oil-water
interface into the aqueous phase and the oil-droplet necks and emulsifies
driven by Rayleighe -Taylor instability.
25. Penetration Mechanism
Favored by polar oils, such as sebum, or phase-separated simple
coacervates at temperatures above their lower critical solution
temperature.
If the surfactant diffuses into the oil in sufficient concentrations, the oils
can become part of a self-assembled mesomorphic phase, such as
lamellar phase.
26. Water layers are an essential part of these self-assembled
surfactant systems.
Repulsion between the bilayers of a resulting lamellar phase
will cause the lamellar phase to swell and break off.
Fresh surfactant then penetrates the newly exposed surface
and the process repeats.
The dislodged oil becomes an emulsion stabilized by lamellar
phase.
The penetration mechanism is especially useful in hard water
area where anionic surfactants form coacervate phases in the
presence of calcium salts.
27. Solubilization Mechanism
process of incorporating a water-insoluble
hydrophobic substance in the internal hydrophobic
core of micelles.
The kinetics of micellization and surfactant
adsorption and exchange between micelles is
important in this mechanism
1-Mar-23
28. Surfactant and Foam
Foam is a two-phase system in which the gas (air) phase is dispersed in a small
amount of liquid (water) continuous phase.
A bubbly foam – wet foam (e.g. in ice cream) is formed when the amount of
gas incorporated is low enough for bubbles to retain roughly spherical shape.
Polyhedral foam – dry foam (e.g., beer foam) – the gas- to-liquid ratio is so large
that bubbles are pressed against one another in a honeycomb- type structure.
Wet foam tends to form at the lower portion of the foam column, while dry foam
tends to form at the upper portion.
The wet foam is more spherical and
viscous, and the dry foam tends to be
larger in diameter and less viscous.
Wet foam forms closer to the
originating liquid, while dry foam
develops at the outer boundaries.
1-Mar-23
29. Foaming is a cue that provides the user with evidence that the product is working to
cleanse the body, but foaming is more than a consumer-perceived sensory attribute;
foam does serve to float hydrophobic particles away from the substrate
foaming of liquids is enabled by surfactants and characterized by their very low density.
Large surface area confers the advantages of dust removal, but the adsorption of
surfactant from the bulk could deplete the micellar surfactant concentration and thereby
diminish cleansing by emulsification, penetration, and solubilization mechanisms.
In such instances the need to generate a foam while achieving excellent cleansing
mandates a lower limit of surfactant concentration in the formulation.
There are three distinct processes that should be considered when trying to understand
the basics of foams:
foam initiation and formation
foam stability
foam drainage and rupture
1-Mar-23
30. Foam Formation
The formation of a foam initially requires the formation of large gas voids that
create enormous area of liquid-gas interface.
Initially small spherical bubbles are imbibed in a creamy “kugelschaum” ("kugel"
means "sphere" and "schaum" means foam) .
When the volume fraction of air increases to a limit, the liquid faces between the
bubbles distort and the foam becomes a system of air trapped in polyhedral films
(polyederschaum).
In a pure liquid, the interfacial area is unstable and the liquid film retracts into the
bulk liquid almost as quickly as it formed.
In surfactant solutions, the surfactant adsorbs at the surface of the liquid –
reducing surface tension and forms a film around the gas bubbles.
This surfactant adsorption results in a surface tension gradient that creates
velocity gradient normal to the plane of the film, which creates a tension at the
interface that opposes drainage of the liquid from the film.
1-Mar-23
31. In the case of a pure liquid, there is no preferential adsorption at the interfaces, and hence no
velocity gradient to oppose liquid drainage.
As a result, there will be no viscous shear force opposing drainage, and the film will exhibit
plug flow (resisted only by extensional viscosity), and the draining elements will tear the film
apart.
On the other hand, surfactant adsorption leads to a surface tension gradient that balances
the viscous forces of liquid flow, and the film becomes stable for a longer duration.
Surface tension drives to minimize the surface area of the bubble however the excess
pressure (pressure difference between inside and outside bubble) counteracts it and an
equilibrium bubble size is reached.
1-Mar-23
32. Foam Stability
The stability of a foam may be measured in terms of loss of foam volume over
a period of time.
All foams are thermodynamically unstable, due to their high interfacial energy,
which is dissipated upon rupture of the foam.
A minimum concentration of surfactant is required to increase foam lifetime to
confer stability on the foam lamellae.
when a surfactant is present the interfaces are essentially rigid and a
parabolic velocity profile will exist.
Therefore, the increased viscosity will slow down drainage and collapse.
Foam formation can be linked to dynamic surface pressure, but foam stability
seems to depend on surface dilatational rheology (interface is expanded and
contracted in a controlled manner - method for measuring the stability of
emulsions and foams).
1-Mar-23
33. Low concentrations of adsorbed surfactants result in liquid
monolayers that are elastic.
Expansion of the interface leads to an immediate elastic recoil that
prevents the formation of a foam.
At higher surface excess concentrations, the surface dilatational
rheology becomes viscoelastic, and it seems that the viscous
component is necessary for foam stability.
Dilatational viscoelasticity has been linked to the presence of
surfactant aggregates or complexes in the surface adsorbed layer
1-Mar-23
34. Foam Drainage
During foam production the foam is predominantly in a liquid state and the
volume fraction of liquid/gas is relatively high.
However, this liquid state is metastable, and upon cessation of foam
generation, the foam coarsens.
Liquid drains from foam under gravity.
Foam drains along lamellae to the curved junction of thin lamellae (plateau
borders) where the pressure is low.
As the liquid drains, the film of bubble brought closer.
The process of coarsening essentially entails an increase in the average
bubble size and a decrease in the lamellar distance between bubbles.
Coarsening occurs by drainage of the liquid between the fragile
membranes of the bubbles, and diffusion of gas across the faces of liquid
films that surround the gas bubbles
Film drainage can be slowed by increasing the viscosity of the intralamellar
liquid.
This can be achieved by the addition of water-soluble polymers, especially
hydrophobically modified hydrophilic polymers that can interact with both
sides of the lamellae and span the channel.
1-Mar-23
35. Foam Rupture and Collapse
A liquid of high surface tension pulls more strongly on the surrounding fluid than a
liquid of lower surface tension.
Therefore, if a surface tension gradient is set up in a liquid, the liquid will
spontaneously flow away from the region of low surface tension.
This can be demonstrated by sprinkling pepper on a clean water surface and then
adding one drop of surfactant solution to the center of the surface. The pepper
immediately flows to the periphery of the vessel. This is an example of Marangoni
flow.
Marangoni flow can lead to lamellar film stability or instability.
soap films are in a condition of pseudoequilibrium since the surface energy can be
lowered by collapse of the film into a smaller volume of unfoamed liquid.
Fluctuations caused by air flows or convection within the film cause variations in
the film thickness.
1-Mar-23
36. If the fluctuation causes the film to be pinched, the surface area of the pinch
point increases with respect to the rest of the film.
This causes a transient lowering of the excess surface concentration of
surfactant, which causes a momentary increase in surface energy, which in
turn causes Marangoni-driven flow of liquid into the pinch point, which
restores the film to its original thickness, thereby stabilizing the film against
rupture.
This process is called the Gibbse Marangoni effect, and the surface elasticity
conferred on the film to cause it to self-heal is called Gibbse Marangoni
elasticity.
If the Marangoni flow is faster than the surface diffusion rate of surfactant, the
weak spot in the film may not be repaired, and catastrophic film failure will
result.
1-Mar-23
37. Polymers in Cosmetics
Polymers are used extensively in cosmetic products, almost to the point of being ubiquitous.
The range of uses for polymers is diverse and, apart from packaging, polymers are used as:
film formers in hair fixatives, nail products, mascara, and transfer-resistant makeup
thickeners and rheology modifiers for emulsions, gels, pigmented dispersions, hair
colorants, and hair relaxers
emulsifiers that can be stimuli responsive upon application for sophisticated skin
treatments and products such
as sports sunscreen
conditioners for skin and hair
moisturizers for skin
emollients that improve the “rub-in” characteristics of skin products
pigment dispersers and stabilizers
waterproofing agents
controlled-release matrices
foam stabilizers and destabilizers
sensory-feel additives
antimicrobial agents
1-Mar-23
38. Polymer Solubility and Compatibility
In considering the use of polymeric ingredients, it is essential to understand the basis of
polymer solubility and compatibility. Regular solution theory reveals two drivers for the
dissolution of one substance in another:
enthalpic interaction between the components; a negative enthalpy of interaction favors
dissolution
increase in configurational entropy due to mixing of the components according to the
relationship
As the molecular weight of the solute increases, the entropic driving forces are diminished for
dissolution of polymers.
As a consequence, polymer solubility depends strongly on the enthalpic interaction between
the polymer and the solvent.
1-Mar-23
39. Polymer Conformation – spatial arrangement (variation in shape, size
and positioning of polymer as a whole)
Regular solution theory considers the statistical thermodynamics of solute
and solvent, specifically, the interactions between the components and the
possible configurations that the solute and solvent molecules can be
arranged relative to each other.
For polymers, there is another consideration - the conformational contribution
of the polymer molecule to the free energy of mixing.
The conformation refers to the statistical “shapes” that are available to given
polymer molecules.
This is important because many of the properties of polymers are related to
the size and shape of the polymers themselves.
1-Mar-23
40. End-to-end Distance
In flexible polymer molecular chains, each link is joined
randomly, and if one could start at the beginning of the chain
and trace a path along the chain, the final distance between
the two chain ends would be less than the end-to-end distance
of a stretched chain.
In fact, the end-to-end distance of perfectly random chain
would scale as the square root of the number of links in the
chain.
This is a useful concept but, unfortunately, the end-to-end
distance of a polymer molecule is a difficult parameter to
measure.
Moreover, theories that assume random-flight polymers
necessarily assume unperturbed polymer chains (polymeric
chain without interactions).
1-Mar-23
41. The conditions for an unperturbed chain are that the polymer segment-segment
interactions are exactly equal to the polymer-solvent interactions. This is
defined as the “theta” (ϴ) condition.
The theta condition hovers between solubility and insolubility.
Increase in solvency causes expansion of the polymer hydrodynamic volume,
and decrease in solvency causes collapse and phase separation of the
polymer from solution.
Therefore, the theta condition, which is the basis of many statistical
thermodynamic theories of polymer solutions, is essentially experimentally
inaccessible, since even slight fluctuations of temperature or pressure will
cause a departure from theta conditions.
Consequently, theta condition polymer dimensions are computed by
extrapolation from experimental measurements.
1-Mar-23
42. Radius of Gyration
The radius of gyration of a polymer molecule is
the average distance of every link from every
other link in the chain.
This is equivalent to measuring the average
distance of every point on the chain from the
center of gravity of the whole chain.
The radius of gyration is a measure of the
distribution of mass in the molecule, and this
parameter can be measured by light-scattering
techniques.
1-Mar-23
43. The Hydrodynamic Radius
Due to the constraints of the molecular chain, the “links” of polymer chains
cannot usually pack tightly together.
There is always some excluded volume within the chain.
In a good solvent, the chain swells and imbibes many molecules of solvent.
It is not unusual for a polymer molecule to swell a hundred-fold or more when
immersed in a good solvent.
The hydrodynamic radius is the radius of the equivalent sphere of a polymer
chain plus the solvent contained within that chain in solution.
The hydrodynamic radii of polymer chains can be measured by viscosity,
dynamic light scattering, and size exclusion chromatography.
1-Mar-23
44. Polymer Dimensions
For real polymer chains, the chain is stiffened by, for example,
(1) bulky groups that hindered rotation around chain backbone
bonds,
(2) the formation of ring structures along the backbone,
(3) the formation of helical conformations,
(4) intermolecular crystallization between chains,
(5) interaction with a good solvent, or
(6) the presence of dissociated ionic groups in the polymer
molecule.
1-Mar-23
45. The stiffness of polymer molecules is characterized by their persistence
lengths or by their “Kuhn” lengths.
The Kuhn length (the length of hypothetical segments that the chain can be
considered as freely joined) is twice the persistence length.
Below the persistence length, the polymer molecule is “stiff.”
Beyond the Kuhn length, a polymer molecule becomes flexible.
The persistence length can be measured by dielectric relaxation, viscoelastic
relaxation, and ultrasonic relaxation techniques and by light scattering.
The Kuhn length of stiff molecules like cellulose ethers is much longer than
that for acrylic polymers.
Although the cellulose ethers are stiff and their thickening properties derive
from that stiffness, their molecule still become coils when they are longer than
the Kuhn length.
1-Mar-23
46. Basics of Dispersions
A dispersion consists of a finely divided particulate
material suspended in an immiscible liquid.
Emulsions are a special case of dispersions in which
the dispersed phase is also a liquid.
Dispersions and emulsions are not
thermodynamically stable.
They are pseudo stable, and the expectation for
cosmetic products is that the discontinuous
particulate phase can be maintained in stable
suspension for several years.
Dispersion of finely divided solids in liquids cannot
usually be achieved by mechanical mixing alone.
1-Mar-23
47. The liquid must first thermodynamically wet the surface and interstices to
penetrate the interparticle interstices and cause disintegration of the dry
powder aggregates into their fundamental particles that are then uniformly
distributed throughout the liquid by mechanical mixing
When a liquid spreads spontaneously on a solid surface, the solid-air
interface is replaced by a liquid-air interface and a liquid-solid interface.
Each of these interfaces has surface energies associated with them.
Spontaneous creation of new surfaces requires that the total free energy of
the surface(s) that are created should be less than the total free energy of the
initial surfaces.
This means that the work of spreading has to be negative for spontaneous
spreading of a liquid on a solid surface.
1-Mar-23
48. In order to break up an aggregate, the liquid must do more than just spread;
it must be forced into the pores of the aggregate.
Therefore spontaneous penetration is favored by low solid-liquid interfacial
tension and high liquid-vapor tension, and small pore radius.
Most surfactants lower both surface tension and interfacial tension.
Therefore, disaggregation depends on the use of specifically adsorbing
surfactants that preferentially wet the solid-liquid interface rather than
adsorb at the liquid-air interface.
Since surfactants adsorb at all interfaces, specific adsorption at the solid-
liquid interface ideally requires the choice of surfactants that adsorb by
dipole-dipole interaction, Lewis acid-Lewis base interaction, or opposite
charge attraction.
The chosen surfactant should also be used sparingly to ensure adsorption
at the desired interface only.
1-Mar-23
Editor's Notes
A common real world example is the froth that is produced for a cappuccino. The proteins in the milk act as a foam stabilizer and produces long-lasting foam after the steaming/frothing process has been completed. Milk is mostly water along with globules of fat and several kind of proteins made of amino acids. During the heating process, the proteins bonds are broken and the molecules unravel. The resultant molecule strengthens the bubble walls and stabilizes the foam