Food resources

FOOD RESOURCES
Submitted by
Boobash Raj S
4th M.Tech
Department of biotechnology

Introduction:
Food is essential for growth and development of living organisms. These essential
materials are called nutrients and these nutrients are available from variety of animals
and plants. There are thousands of edible plants and animals over the world, out of which
only about three dozen types constitute major food of humans.
Food sources:
The majority of people obtain food from cultivated plants and domesticated animals.
Although some food is obtained from oceans and fresh waters, but the great majority of
food for human population is obtained from traditional land-based agriculture of crops
and livestock.
Sources of food:
There are 3 major sources of food for humans: They are
 The croplands
 The rangelands
 Fisheries

The Croplands:
The croplands provide the bulk amount of food for
human. Yet though there are 1000s of edible plants in the
Earth, solely 4 essential crops (potatoes, rice, wheat and
corn) account for many of the caloric consumption of
human beings. Few animals are raised for milk, meat and
eggs (for example. poultry, cattle and pigs) are as well the
croplands are fed grain.
The Rangelands:
It include grasslands, woodlands, and other areas that are
often intimately associated with forests. Rangeland
ecosystem services are often valued differently by
different stakeholders interested in livestock production,
water quality and quantity, biodiversity conservation, or
carbon sequestration. The rangelands provide a different
source of milk and meat from animals grazing (for
example: goats, cattle and sheep).

Fisheries:
The fisheries provide fish which are a major source of
animal protein in the Earth, particularly in coastal areas
and Asia. As people become more affluent, Sustainable,
productive fisheries and aquaculture improve food and
nutrition security, increase income and improve
livelihoods, promote economic growth and protect our
environment and natural resources.
Types of Food Resources:
In the food resources, there are 2 kinds of food
production are as follows:
1. The industrialized agriculture.
2. The traditional agriculture.

The industrialized agriculture:
The industrialized agriculture is called high input agriculture
since it uses large amounts commercial fertilizers for field, the
pesticides, fossil fuels and water. The large fields of
monoculture (single crops) are planted and the plants are
selectively covered to produce high productions. Large
amounts of grain farmed by this process as well further the
production of large numbers in feedlots of livestock animals.
Most of the food made by industrialized processes is traded by
farmers for profit and this kind of food production is most
common in modernized nations because of the involvement of
high expenses and technology. Still, the large industrialized
plantations specializing in a single cash pasture (for example.
crop specifically advanced for profit such as coffee, coca,
bananas) are found in some developing nations.

The traditional agriculture:
The traditional agriculture is the most widely used form of
production of food, happening mostly in developing nations.
This can be classified later as either traditional intensive
agriculture or traditional subsistence and the differences
between the 2 involve the relational amounts of food
produced and resources input. The subsistence agriculture
practices only animal and human labor and only produces
enough food for the families of farmer's. The traditional,
intensive agriculture uses more labor of animal and human,
irrigated water and fertilizers. This may as well involve
growing processes such as intercropping designed to maintain
soil fertility rate. The intercropping involves planting 2 crops
at the same time (for example, nitrogen-fixing legume crop
with a grain pasture). Increased production resulting from the
more intensive processes provides sufficient food for the
farmer's family and for marketing to other people in the local
region.

The food resources in India:
• India is the world's largest producer of milk, pulses and jute, and ranks as the second
largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, vegetables, fruit and cotton. It
is also one of the leading producers of spices, fish, poultry, livestock and plantation
crops.
• Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is the largest source of livelihoods in India. India is
the largest producer (25% of global production), consumer (27% of world
consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the world.
• It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnut, as
well as the second-largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and
8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively.

World Food Supply:
 Mixed Farming
 Good irrigation facilities
 Control of soil erosion
 Quality seeds
 Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
 Good agricultural implements
 Availability of storage and market facilities
 Green Revolution: Resulted in remarkable increase in food production which country self-
sufficient. The quality of Food also improved.
World Food Problems:
As per estimates of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about 840 million people remain
chronically hungry and out of this 800 million are living in the developing world. In last decade, it
is decreasing at the rate of 2.5 million per year, but at the same time world’s population is
increasing. Target of cutting half the number of world’s chronically hungry and undernourished
people by 2015 will difficult to meet, if the present trend continues. Due to inadequate purchasing
power to buy food, it is difficult to fulfil minimum calorific requirement of human body per day.
Large number of people are in India are poor which can be attribute to equitable distribution of
income.

Food Problems will come under the following categories:
 Large population: In spite of green revolution it could not meet the needs of growing
population.
 Energy: Farmers cannot afford fertilizers and pesticides
 Land, Weather, Climate: Agriculture is a gamble on climatic conditions
 Absence of Food security
 Food availability
 Purchasing power
Food Problems in India:
Despite impressive gain in total and per capita food production since 1970, roughly 40%
suffer from Malnutrition because they poor to buy or to grow wnough foof to meet their
basic needs.
Now it’s time to give more emphasis to increase food production, equal distribution of food
and at the same time to control the population growth.

The principle cause of food-shortage in India:
 Want of improved methods of cultivation through science and technology
 Poverty and lack of purchasing power
 Tillers are not in feasts
 Excessive growth of population
 Lack of cold storage facility
 Wastage of food for ignorance of preserving method
 Wastage of food in wrong process of cooking
Food insufficiency can be divided into two categories:
Under-nourishment
 Malnourishment.
 Both of these insufficiencies are global problems

Under-nourishment
The FAO estimates that the average minimum daily
caloric intake over the whole world is about 2,500
calories per day. People who receive less than 90%
of their minimum dietary intake on a long-term
basis are considered undernourished. Those who
receive less than 80% of their minimum daily
caloric intake requirements are considered
‘seriously’ undernourished. Children in this
category are likely to suffer from stunted growth,
mental retardation, and other social and
developmental disorders. Therefore, Under-
nourishment means lack of sufficient calories in
available food, resulting in little or no ability to
move or work.

Malnutrition:
 Derived from malus (bad) and nutrire (to nourish).
 Malnutrition arises due to lack of minimum amount of protein,
vitamins, lipids, carbohydrates and other essential nutrients
required for proper health and growth.
 Person may have excess food but still diet suffers from due to
nutritional imbalance or inability to absorb or may have problem
to utilize essential nutrients.
 If we compare diet of the developed countries with developing
countries people in developed countries have processed food
which may be deficient in fiber, vitamins and other components
where as in the diet of developing countries, may be lack of
specific nutrients because they consume less meat, fruits and
vegetables due to poor purchasing power.
Malnutrition may occur in both Rich and Poor countries:
 Rich Countries: Over Nutrition (an excess of nutrient or nutrients)
 Poor Countries: Under Nutrition (deficiency of one or more
essential nutrition)

The major problems of malnutrition are:
 Marasmus: a progressive emaciation caused by lack of
protein and calories.
 Kwashiorkor : a lack of sufficient protein in the diet which
leads to a failure of neural development and therefore
learning disabilities.

 Anemia: it is caused by lack of iron in the diet or due
to an inability to absorb iron from food.
 Pellagra: it occurs due to the deficiency of tryptophan
and lysine, vitamins in the diet.

 Goiter: caused by iodine deficiency leads to mental
retardation and deaf mutism.
 Chronic Hunger: occur when people have just enough
food to stay alive bu not satisfactory lives
Every year, food problem kill as many people as were
killed by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during
World War II. This shows that there is drastic need to
increase food production, equitably distribute it and also to
control population growth. Although India is the third
largest producer of staple crops, it is estimated that about
300 million Indians are still undernourished.

Balanced diet:
Supply of adequate amount of different nutrient can help to improve malnutrition and its
ill effects. Cereals like wheat and rice can supply only carbohydrate which are rich in
energy supply, are only fraction of nutrition requirement. Cereal diet has to be
supplemented with other food that can supply fat, protein and minor quantity of
minerals and vitamins. Balanced diet will help to improve growth and health.
How to solve the Food Problem of India?
⁑ Introduction of improved method of cultivation based on Science and Technology
⁑ Improvement of Financial and Education status of Indian cultivators
⁑ Balancing the demand with supply
⁑ Checking population growth
⁑ Increasing production of food grains
⁑ Protection of food from rats, insecticides etc.
⁑ Judicious distribution of available supplies
⁑ Proper public distribution
⁑ Proper transport facilities

Factors to Improve Food Production:
• Training farmers for new techniques of agriculture, cultivation & crop rotation.
• Construction of water storage reservoirs.
• Improvement in the irrigation system & canal networking.
• Adopting water conservation & water harvesting techniques.
• Adopting soil reclamation process.
Environmental Impacts due to Increase in Food Production:

Steps to increase Food Production:
■ Available land acreage should be properly and judiciousl utilized
■ Soil fertility should be increased through wise use of fertilizers and organic
manures.
■ Mixed cropping should be practiced wherever possible.
■ Soil erosion and loss of nutrients should be prevented by maintaining vegetation
cover throughout the year.
■ High yield and disease resistant varieties should be introduce.
■ Integrated and balance use of available water source (surface and ground water)
should be made.
■ Weeds and pest should be efficiently controlled integrated pest control practices
should be preferred over total reliance on chemical pesticides.
■ Combining use of traditional methods/equipment with modern methods of
agriculture.
■ Crop rotation should be done.

Limits of Increasing Food Production:
 There are ecological limits to how much food can be produced, and there are growing
signs that such limits have been or soon will be reached in some parts of the world.
 Even if agricultural technology and biotechnology enhance productivity the environment
impacts associated with food production impose limits on the amount of food the earth
can produce.
 Contuning to increase inputs of fertilizer, watr and pesticides eventually produces no
additional increase in the crop yield as the J-shaped curve of crop production slows
down, reaches it limits, levels off and becomes as S-shaped curve.
 Grains yields per hectare are still increasing in almost every country but at much slower
rate.
 Worldwide, such yields dropped from an annual 2.3% increase between 1950 and 1984
to 1% annual increase between 1984 and 1993.

 Since 1985 yields for the major grains in the three countries with the highest yields
per hectare-USA (corn), Great Britain(wheat), Japan(rice), have leveled off.
 Future increase in food yields per hectare on existing cropland will result from
improved strains of plants and from expansion of green revolution technology to new
parts of the world.
Schematic representation of food production:

Changes Caused by Agriculture:
Agriculture is the world’s oldest and largest industry; more than half of all the people in
the world still live on farms. But, because of production, processing and distribution of
food — and that took on a large scale larger effects on the environment are unavoidable.
Agriculture has both primary and secondary environmental effects. A primary effect is an
effect on the area where the agriculture takes place i.e. on-site effect. A secondary effect,
also called an off-site effect, is an effect on an environment away from the agricultural
site.

The Environmental Impact Of Food And Agriculture:

The effects of agriculture on the environment can be broadly classified into three
groups, viz. global, regional and local:
(1) Global Effects:
These include climate changes as well as potentially extensive changes in chemical
cycles.
(2) Regional Effects:
These generally result from the combined effects of farming practices in the same large
region. Regional effects include deforestation, desertification, large scale pollution,
increase in sedimentation in major rivers and in the estuaries at the mouths of the rivers
and changes in the chemical fertility of soils over large areas. In tropical waters,
sediments entering the ocean can destroy coral reefs.
(3) Local Effects:
These occur at or near the site of farming. These changes / effects include soil erosion
and increase in sedimentation downstream in local rivers. Fertilizers carried by
sediments can also transport toxins and destroy local fisheries.

For any particular crop, the effect of increased temperature will depend on the crop's optimal
temperature for growth and reproduction.
 Higher CO2 levels can affect crop yields. Some laboratory experiments suggest that elevated
CO2 levels can increase plant growth. However, other factors, such as changing temperatures, ozone,
and water and nutrient constraints, may counteract these potential increases in yield. For example, if
temperature exceeds a crop's optimal level, if sufficient water and nutrients are not available, yield
increases may be reduced or reversed.
 More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme events,
especially floods and droughts, can harm crops and reduce yields. For example, in 2010 and 2012,
high nighttime temperatures affected corn yields across the U.S. Corn Belt, and premature budding
due to a warm winter caused $220 million in losses of Michigan cherries in 2012.
 Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where rising summer temperatures cause
soils to become drier. Although increased irrigation might be possible in some places, in other places
water supplies may also be reduced, leaving less water available for irrigation when more is needed.
 Many weeds, pests, and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and increased
CO2 levels. Currently, U.S. farmers spend more than $11 billion per year to fight weeds, which
compete with crops for light, water, and nutrients.

Use of Chemicals for Agriculture:
 Unfertile soils may require even larger amounts of fertilizers to meet the demand for
agricultural production. Once planted, fertilizers, herbicides, and artificial pesticides are all
used throughout the growing process to help promote plant growth (with fertilizer), while
simultaneously preventing competition from other plants, and degradation from crop-eating
pests.
 The exorbitant use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides is unsustainable and
environmentally damaging for two reasons. First and foremost, they are chemicals that can
be toxic when organisms are exposed to high concentrations. While the methods by which
these chemicals are applied to crops prevent them from accumulating on the food in harmful
concentrations, they are difficult for our bodies to process and consuming large amounts of
food treated in this manner could lead to health impacts through bio-accumulation.
 Application of these chemicals onto crops also causes them to be released into the
atmosphere as harmful air pollutants. Agricultural run-off from heavy rains removes
chemicals from the site of food production and transports them to other locations, polluting
soils, waterways, and other ecosystems.

Overgrazing:
 Overgrazing is the practice of allowing more animals
to feed on a given piece of land for a longer time than
it is able to support.
 Overgrazing can subtly damage the environment by
altering the kinds of plants able to grow in a certain
area, or more conspicuously by destroying most
plants and leaving bare ground. Many kinds of
animals are responsible for overgrazing in different
parts of the world.
 In the United States, cattle cause much of the damage
by overgrazing. Goats, sheep, horses, and even yaks
are responsible for the majority of damage in some
other countries. Although overgrazing is often
associated with domesticated animals, uncontrolled
populations of wild animals, including deer, can
cause similar problems.

Historical Background And Scientific Foundations
Herding animals, particularly sheep, is a very ancient occupation in Europe, Asia minor,
and Africa. Sheep provided meat, milk, and skins for early farmers; this versatility made
them a valuable supplement to agricultural subsistence.
When relatively small numbers of animals were able to roam on large areas of land, over-
grazing was not a problem. However, as more people and animals started to compete for
finite grazing resources, additional stress was placed on the ecosystem, leading to
environmental damage.
Overgrazing results when too many animals are kept on too little land for the plants to
recover sufficiently before being grazed again. Because most grazing animals are selective
about the plants they eat, the desirable, nutritious plants are usually consumed first, leaving
less-appetizing plants to grow to maturity and disperse their seeds.
They can damage the root growth of the plants. Just as when a lawn is mowed too short,
the plants cannot generate enough energy through photosynthesis to grow. If its roots are
too small during periods of drought, the plant is likely to die because it cannot access
enough water.

Impacts And Issues:
Overgrazing is a serious problem because it harms both the environment and the
animals it is intended to benefit. Plants that have been overgrazed are less healthy
because their carbohydrate reserves have been depleted. Animals who are fed on
this less-nutritious fodder are not as healthy as their well-fed counterparts, are
more
FODDER: Food for grazing animals.
GRAZING CAPACITY: The number of animals that a given area of land can
support.
PASTURE: Low-growing plants suitable for grazing livestock or land containing
such plants. Some pastureland is fenced, while some is part of the open range.

A simplistic overview of some of the negative effects of grazing that can be termed
‘overgrazing’ depending on the personal view, conservation or management objective.

OVERGRAZING AFFECT RANGELANDS AND LEAD TO DEGRADATION:
(1) Many rangelands historically have supported native grasslands, originally dominated
by perennial grasses. These grasses are useful for soil stabilization (they maintain cover
of the ground year around and have extensive root systems),are quite productive, and also
are very palatable to cattle.
(2) As the size of livestock herds (or the duration of grazing) increases, the perennial
grasses are consumed, trampled, and decline. Their roots suffer from loss of above-ground
parts and soil compaction. In addition, when they are heavily grazed (particularly at
flowering and seed set times) they produce fewer seeds, decreasing recruitment of new
individuals into the population.
(3) The decline of the perennial bunchgrasses is followed by increased abundance of less
palatable annual (or short-lived perennial) grasses and herbs. Space has been freed by
the decline of the native perennials and the annuals seed in well.
(4) So, rates of soil erosion increase.
(5) As overgrazing and trampling continue, plant cover of all types -- even the annuals --
decreases further.

Causes of Overgrazing:
* Lack of Proper Animal/Wildlife Management:
The lack of proper animal and wildlife feeding management on the available pasture is the
leading cause of overgrazing. For instance, without proper management of the animal’s
feeding habits, they tend to feed on young plants and seeds, thereby reducing their growth
and survival capacities.
* Socio-economic Conditions of the Farmer:
The farmers handling the livestock generally belong to a weaker socio-economic
background. This means that they are unable to support their livestock with the proper
amount of fodder and thus, but turning them onto pastures, leave them to fend for
themselves.
* Drought or Decline in Precipitation:
Drought and the decline in precipitation in any area automatically mean that the growth
and survival of plants and vegetation are heavily impacted. The direct outcome of this is
stunted growth and drying out of plants/vegetation.

* Improper Land Use:
Land use significantly determines the productive condition of the land and soil fertility
Hence, improper land use such as logging activities, slash and burn farming
techniques, mining excessive and unplanned urban sprawl and land pollution lessens the
overall land available for pasture.
* Overstocking:
Overstocking implies a situation where a piece of land is intensively stocked with more
animals that the site can support for a grazing season. In the majority of the cases, animals
are more than the average land available for grazing, which leads to repeated removal of
plant/vegetation material without a sufficient amount of time given for the leaf/pasture
mass to regrow.

Grading of criteria that should be evaluated when confronted with a possible
overgrazing situation:

Determining overgrazing:
Overgrazing can be assessed based either on the plants directly (A) or on the animals
(B).
• (A)when monitoring directly on plant coverage, it requires knowledge about the
population level at which a certain plant response or demographic.

 (B) Response in animals translates into overgrazing. Different traits/indexes may
respond at different density levels.

Overgrazing can be assessed directly by comparing performance in the increase and
decrease phases of population development:

Dangers of Overgrazing:
⁍ Plants are weakened, thus affecting their ability to produce regrowth.
⁍ Plant crowns can be damaged and prevent future regrowth.
⁍ The amount of plant biomass above ground is closely related to the amount of root
biomass below ground.
⁍ With a smaller root biomass below the soil surface, fewer nutrients are taken up and
utilized by the plants.
⁍ As more nutrients are left in the soil unused, an increased risk of nutrient leaching
below the rhizosphere (root zone) occurs.
⁍ Once nutrients are below the rhizosphere, they can be carried off by water moving
through the soil profile (leaching) and end up in the groundwater.

Simple Solutions to Overgrazing:
⁙ Proper Management of Animals:
As much as overgrazing is associated with the number of animals, it’s more about the management
of the animals. There are several methods of grazing management to choose from that can
offer effective solutions to overgrazing. Examples are rotational, cell, and mob grazing.
⁙ Land Use Management:
Land use management involves the proper assessment of various land uses and the implications of
human activities on land. Local and regional factors such as aridity and rainfall patterns also have
to be considered before any land development or exploitation implementations are undertaken.
⁙ Sustainable Pasture Practices:
Sustainable pasture practices pertain to grassland production in a well managed and controlled
manner. When grazing management is combined with agro ecology practices and sustainable
agriculture, it gives rise to the most suitable grassland-based livestock production because it
encourages both animal and plant productivity and good health.
⁙ Shifting to Other Ways of Feeding Livestock:
It is essential to understand that livestock can be fed on stored fodder as well. This process not only
ensures the fact that the livestock does not overfeed, but it also ensures that pastures are not
overgrazed. This is yet another sustainable practice that could be adopted.

Reference:
https://bioone.org/journals/wildlife-biology/volume-12/The-concept-of-overgrazing-
and-its-role-in-management-of/10.2981/0909-
6396(2006)12[129:TCOOAI]2.0.CO;2.full?tab=ArticleLink
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/changes-caused-by-agriculture-and-
overgrazing/28161
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/
https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/climate-change-and-agriculture

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