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Focus Group Discussion

The document provides information on conducting focus group discussions, including objectives, descriptions, facilitator guides, recruitment of participants, moderating techniques, and analysis. It discusses the purpose of focus groups as a form of group interview to obtain perceptions on a defined topic. It outlines the key steps in preparing and conducting focus groups, from developing a protocol and facilitator guide to analyzing and reporting the results. The document serves as a guide for researchers on how to properly plan, facilitate, and analyze data from focus group discussions.

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FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION 5/9/2018 1
OBJECTIVES • Understand the process of focus group discussion • Understand how to conduct focus group discussion • Data collection • Analysis of data • Presentation of the Results 5/9/2018 2
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION • The focus group method is a form of group interview in which: • there are several participants (in addition to the moderator/facilitator) • there is an emphasis in the questioning on a particular fairly tightly defined topic • The emphasis is upon interaction within the group • A planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a non-threatening environment • An interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured manner with a small group of respondents • It is a discussion based interview that produces a particular type of data 5/9/2018 3
DESCRIPTION Protocol Development Facilitator guide Recruitment and invitation of participants Recruitment and training of team Logistics Conduct of FGD Analysis Reporting 5/9/2018 4
FACILITATORS GUIDE Research question Formulate interview questions Review/ revise interview questions Pilot guide Identify novel issues Revise interview questions Finalize Guide *New issues might emerge during the discussion 5/9/2018 5
Basic Elements in the preparation of the Guide • Create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview • Formulate interview topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific) • Outline key issues and probing questions • Try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing • Just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions • The sequence of the topics moves from the general to the specific • Be flexible, it is not a must to go from one question to the next • Be prepared to adapt the topic guide after the first focus group discussion (ITERATIVE) • Use open ended questions and avoid judgemental and leading questions 5/9/2018 6
Childhood Obesity in India: A Multicenter Study on its Measurements and Determinants with Reference to Cardio-Metabolic Risk Factors ICMR Taskforce Study Areas for discussion Probes Dietary intake •Tiffin tradition in school and its content •Food items available in school canteen/gate/school surrounding •Consumption of soft drinks among children •Influence of peers on food behaviour of children Media •Food advertisement in school •Its Influence on food behaviour and health Physical activity •Facility available at school •Physical education class in school •Play activities /games performed by students in school •Encouragement effort to keep children physically active by school •Usual mode of transport to school and changing pattern •Walking up and cycling to school and its safety 5/9/2018 7
RECRUITMENT OF PARTICIPANTS • Homogeneous group in terms of demography and socio- economic characteristics but have varying perspectives • Through home visits/ community influencers inform participants • Select participants who are likely to be participatory and reflective • Attempt to select members who don’t know each other • Group of 6-8 people • Participants should be invited at least 1 or 2 days in advance • Participants should be informed about the time and venue • They should be explained the general purpose of the FGD 5/9/2018 8
TEAM • MODERATOR • NOTE-TAKER • Others- Observer Helper 5/9/2018 9
Moderator High Control of Content High Control of Process Low Control of Process Low Control of Content 1 2 3 4 Maximum Structure Expert Mode Process Facilitation Self-managed Group 5/9/2018 10
Moderator • Introduce the topic • Aims to facilitate the discussion, use probe for better understanding • Should not convey an impression of being an expert • Detached but kind • Is non-judgemental and creates a permissive environment • Keep FGD Focused • Help less participating people speak • Keep dominating people from speaking too much • Should seek minute details in people’s response • Facilitate transition from one topic from another • Elicit detailed responses • Flexible- able to alter the planned outline according to the situation 5/9/2018 11
Note-taker • Tape records the session • Records non-verbal communication • Note level of consensus/ disagreement • Notes the body language • Map out seating • Assigns ID numbers to participants for later identification 5/9/2018 12
SOCIO-GRAM Note-taker Facilitator 5/9/2018 13
SOCIO-GRAM • Diagram representing the pattern of relationships between individuals in a group • Carried out by note-taker • Draw a diagram of the seating positions of the FGD participants • Use a different colour or symbol for the moderator and note-taker • At different points within the FGD record who is speaking and who they are speaking to • If participants or the moderator are speaking to the whole group draw a short arrow • If participants or the moderator are speaking to one person draw an arrow from them to the person they are addressing • Track group interaction through time 5/9/2018 14
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WHAT WE NEED Equipment • Audio Recorder • Spare batteries • Note-pad and pencil for note- taking • Consent forms • Refreshments Participants • 6-10 participants • Homogeneous • Familiar/ unfamiliar 5/9/2018 17
WHAT WE NEED Venue Any place • Where people can easily reach • Where they will feel comfortable • Any place where 6-12 people can be seated • There is some open space left • A place with minimal intrusions Seating Arrangements • It should facilitate maximum interaction among participants • Best arrangement is to have participants sit facing each other (circle) • Each participant should have the provision to see all the other participants • Seating arrangement at the same level • Participants should feel physically and psychologically comfortable 5/9/2018 18
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CONDUCTING THE FGD Welcome the Group Introduction Obtain informed consent Explain recording method Introductory question Present questions one by one (Probe) Stay on track/ redirect discussion gently Ending question Summarize and Group Closure5/9/2018 21
• Introduce self (moderator) and others • Introduce ground rules - confidentiality etc (can be useful to develop these with participants) • Objections to recording • Why you have been brought together (purpose) • There are no right or wrong answers • Any points of clarification? 5/9/2018 22
FGD- GHAZIPUR Warming up •Introduced ourselves •Purpose •Confidentiality •Introduction of the participants Consent •Consent to participate •Consent to record Discussion •Start from General •Move towards specific •No leading questions Closure •Summarize and recap. Thank the participants •Give refreshments •Ex- Thank you for participating. This has been a very successful discussion. Your opinions will be a valuable asset to the study. We hope you have found the discussion interesting. If there is anything you are unhappy with or wish to complain about, please speak to me later. I would like to remind you that any comments featuring in this report will be anonymous 5/9/2018 23
FGD- GHAZIPUR • When you think about the health of babies, what do you think you need to do for them to remain healthy? 5/9/2018 24
ANALYSIS 5/9/2018 25
Transcription (lat. trans-scribere = to rewrite) • Transcription is the transfer of an audio or video recording into written form. • It usually originates from simply typewriting the recorded content. • In a transcript, speech is registered in writing and therefore made accessible for analysis. NEED • Verbal statements are ephemeral and what we remember from conversations is often sketchy. • Transcription aims at overcoming this problem by supporting memory. 5/9/2018 26
DILEMMA • One the one hand, one wants to represent speech in as much detail and in as multifaceted a way as possible in order to provide the reader with an accurate impression of the conversation and thus facilitate its reconstruction. • On the other hand, too many details and too much information can make a transcript difficult to read. • There is thus a tension between the op- posing poles of accurate representation and practical limitations. PARADOX • with the aspiration to accurately represent the multi-faceted verbal discourse, we create a written text that is a linear, one-dimensional document. CAUTION • Even a transcript closely guided by phonetics neglects non-verbal aspects such as odor, room and time setting, visual aspects, facial expressions and gestures. • As one cannot include everything, one must focus on certain aspects. • These aspects will vary depending on your research objective or intended use of the transcript or situation, respectively. 5/9/2018 27
SIMPLE TRANSCRIPTS • Para-verbal and non-verbal elements of communication are usually omitted. • Dialect and colloquial language is approximated to standard language. • Content is given priority. • The focus of simple transcripts lies on readability. • It is easier to learn to produce such a transcript and the transcription takes less time. COMPLEX TRANSCRIPTS • based on a complex set of transcription rules becomes necessary if the subsequent analysis does not merely focus on the semantic content of a conversation. • In such cases, prosodic elements (e.g. intonation, primary and secondary emphasis, volume, speed and pitch) are included. • If necessary, a phonetic transcription is added, e.g. in dialect research and non-verbal phenomena are documented in a more complex way. 5/9/2018 28
EXAMPLE 5/9/2018 29
The underlying transcription rules 1. Transcribe literally; do not summarize. Dialects are to be accurately translated into standard language. If there is no suitable translation for a word or expression, the dialect is retained. 2. Informal contractions are not to be transcribed, but approximated to written standard language. E.g. “gonna” becomes “going to” in the transcript. Sentence structure is retained despite possible syntactic errors. 3. Discontinuations of words or sentences as well as stutters are omitted; word doublings are only transcribed if they are used for emphasis (“This is very, very important to me.”) Half sentences are recorded and indicated by a slash /. 5/9/2018 30
4. Punctuation is smoothed in favor of legibility. Thus short drops of voice or ambiguous intonations are preferably indicated by periods rather than commas. Units of meaning have to remain intact. 5. Pauses are indicated by suspension marks in parentheses (...). 6. Affirmative utterances by the interviewer, like “uh-huh, yes, right” etc. are not transcribed. EXCEPTION: monosyllabic answers are always transcribed. Add an interpretation, e.g. “Mhm (affirmative)” or “Mhm (negative)”. 7. Words with a special emphasis are CAPITALIZED. 5/9/2018 31
8. Every contribution by a speaker receives its own paragraph. In between speakers there is a blank line. Short interjections also get their own paragraph. At a minimum, time stamps are inserted at the end of a paragraph. 9. Emotional non-verbal utterances of all parties involved that support or elucidate statements (laughter, sighs) are transcribed in brackets. 10. Incomprehensible words are indicated as follows (inc.). For unintelligible passages, indicate the reason: (inc., cell phone ringing) or (inc., microphone rustling). If you assume a certain word but are not sure, put the word in brackets with a question mark, e.g. (Xylometazoline?). Generally, all inaudible or incomprehensible passages are marked with a time stamp if there isn’t one within a minute. 5/9/2018 32
STEP 1 in our FGD 5/9/2018 33
STEP 2 in our FGD 5/9/2018 34
CODING • Coding is assigning labels to data. • A code is a word/phrase/sentence that represents aspect(s) of data or captures the essence or feature(s) of a data. ESSENCE OF CODING • Reducing the data (without loosing the meaning while capturing the significant ideas) • Understanding phenomenon • Developing construct • Developing theory5/9/2018 35
TYPES: - 1. Open Coding 2. Axial Coding 3. Selective coding 5/9/2018 36
First Cycle coding methods 1)Attribute coding 2)Descriptive coding 3)Emotion coding 4)Evaluation coding 5)In Vivo coding 6)Magnitude coding 7)Process coding 8)Narrative coding 9)Values coding 10)Theming coding Categorizing codes and generating themes based on 1)Relationship between codes 2)Code frequencies 3)Underlying meaning across codes Second cycle coding methods 1)Pattern coding 2)Focused coding 3)Axial coding 4)Theoretical coding 5/9/2018 37
Coding Methods Function Example Attribute coding Coding features of research site, participant and material being studied Participants’ age, gender, and educational level Emotion coding Coding participants’ feeling, emotion, excitement, sensation Hopelessness, anxiety, pessimism, denial In vivo coding Using participant’s own words “never again”, “no negotiation” Value coding Coding participants’ Value, Attitude, and Belief V-education, A-sense of uncertainty, B-existence of discrimination Narrative coding Coding participants’ stories including their interaction with others and retelling them Descriptive coding Assigning topics to aspects of data Normally nouns Primarily for social environment Churches, school, playground, banks, library 5/9/2018 38
Coding Methods Function Example Evaluation coding Assign judgment ‘Foreign’ to them, sense of independence Magnitude coding Assigning intensity, frequency, direction, presence to the codes High, moderate and low income Present and absent motivation Process coding/Action coding Coding “observable activity” and/or ”conceptual action” Walking, cooking, enjoying music, reflecting Theming data Using phrase or sentence to describe or capture the meaning of an aspect of data Ability to take care of the children Ability to pay bills 5/9/2018 39
Computer aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) • ATLAS.ti • MAXQDA • NVivo • HyperRESEARCH • QDA Miner • Qualrus • Transana • Weft QDA 5/9/2018 40
OPEN CODING 5/9/2018 41
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AXIS5/9/2018 51
• This step is to group the discrete codes according to conceptual categories. • Idea of clustering the open codes around specific "axes" or points of intersection (Strauss and Corbin). • This step serves to refine and differentiate concepts that are already available and lends them the status of categories. • One category is located at the center and a network of relationships is developed around it. • In the same way as open coding, axial coding is applied to very short textual segments , to larger extracts or to the entire text. AXIAL CODING 5/9/2018 52
Hypothesis: • First observation: Under conditions where cancer patients complain of pain and request relief, nurses provide comfort not only by giving patients something for pain, but also through touch, soothing talk, and so on. • Second observation: A cancer patient is heard complaining of pain, yet the nurse is not responding in the expected manner. • This does not necessarily mean that the hypothesis is false. • Reason?? • Generating new, provisional, conditional relationships. • Makes the theory more conceptually dense and makes the conceptual linkages more specific. • The analyst can say: “Under these conditions, action takes this form, whereas under these other conditions, it takes another.“ • A major intent of grounded theory strategy is to systematically seek the full range of variation of the phenomena under scrutiny. 5/9/2018 53
OPEN CODING 5/9/2018 54
Harmful effects of bottle feeding Infections due to bottle-feed Feeling of exhaustion after bottle feeding Infections due to unhygienic practices 5/9/2018 56
Misconception regarding breastfeeding Misconception regarding breastfeeding Self-initiation of bottle feeding by mother Self-initiation of bottle-feeding by mother Bottle feeding hygiene practices • Unhygienic practices • Infections due to unhygienic practices Facilitators of bottle feeding • Initiation of bottle-feeding among working mothers • Initiation of bottle-feeding due to inadequate breastmilk • Initiation of bottle-feeding among working mothers • Preference to work over feeding of child Harmful effects of bottle feeding • Infections due to unhygienic practices • Feeling of exhaustion after bottle feeding • Infections due to bottle-feed Other preferences • Preference to bottle over spoon • Preference to other milk over breast milk • Preference to glass over bottle 5/9/2018 57
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SELECTIVE CODING • Core category: “consists of all the products of analysis condensed into a few words that seems to explain what this research is all about”. • All categories and subcategories now become systematically linked with the central core category, the one "that appears to have the greatest explanatory relevance" for the phenomenon. • Integrates and synthesizes the categories derived from coding and analysis to now create a theory. • At this point the researcher treats the various code clusters in a selective fashion, deciding how they relate to each other and what stories they tell. Thus the analyst constructs a set of relational statements that can be used to explain, in a general sense, what is going on (Strauss and Corbin,1998) 5/9/2018 59
• The core category represents the central phenomenon of the study. • It is identified by asking questions such as: 1. What is the main analytic idea presented by this research? 2. If I had to conceptualize my finding in a few sentences, what would I say? 3. What does all the action/interaction seem to be about? 4. How can I explain all of the variation that I see between and among the categories? 5/9/2018 60
Selective coding One of the axial categories core category Formulate a new category. core category 5/9/2018 61
• PHENOMENON: the central idea, event, happening, incident about which a set of actions or interactions are directed at managing, handling or to which the set of actions is related. • CAUSAL CONDITIONS: what influences the central phenomenon, events, incidences, happenings. • STRATEGIES: for addressing the phenomenon: Purposeful, goal oriented. • CONTEXT: time, place, duration, and locations of events. • INTERVENING CONDITIONS: that shape, facilitate or constrain the strategies that take place within a specific context. • ACTION/INTERACTION: strategies devised to manage, handle, carry out, respond to a phenomenon under a set of perceived conditions. • CONSEQUENCES: outcomes or results of action or interaction, result from the strategies CODING PARADIGM 5/9/2018 62
Morrow, S. & Smith, M. (1995). “A grounded theory study: Constructions of survival and coping by women who have survived childhood sexual abuse”. In John Cresswell (Ed.), Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (pp. 297-321). CODING PARADIGM If I’ve drunk too much (context), I get (condition) a headache (phenomenon/ axial category). Then I take an aspirin (strategy). After a while it’s better (consequence) 5/9/2018 63
PHENOMENON “Bottle feeding practices” STRATEGIES Self-initiation of bottle feeding by mother INTERVENING CONDITIONS • Other preferences • Misconception regarding breastfeeding CONSEQUENCES • Harmful effects of bottle feeding CAUSAL CONDITIONS • Facilitators of bottle feeding CONTEXT • Bottle feeding hygiene practices 5/9/2018 64
Thank you 5/9/2018 65

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Focus Group Discussion

  • 1.
  • 2.
    OBJECTIVES • Understand theprocess of focus group discussion • Understand how to conduct focus group discussion • Data collection • Analysis of data • Presentation of the Results 5/9/2018 2
  • 3.
    FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION •The focus group method is a form of group interview in which: • there are several participants (in addition to the moderator/facilitator) • there is an emphasis in the questioning on a particular fairly tightly defined topic • The emphasis is upon interaction within the group • A planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a non-threatening environment • An interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured manner with a small group of respondents • It is a discussion based interview that produces a particular type of data 5/9/2018 3
  • 4.
  • 5.
  • 6.
    Basic Elements inthe preparation of the Guide • Create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview • Formulate interview topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific) • Outline key issues and probing questions • Try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing • Just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions • The sequence of the topics moves from the general to the specific • Be flexible, it is not a must to go from one question to the next • Be prepared to adapt the topic guide after the first focus group discussion (ITERATIVE) • Use open ended questions and avoid judgemental and leading questions 5/9/2018 6
  • 7.
    Childhood Obesity inIndia: A Multicenter Study on its Measurements and Determinants with Reference to Cardio-Metabolic Risk Factors ICMR Taskforce Study Areas for discussion Probes Dietary intake •Tiffin tradition in school and its content •Food items available in school canteen/gate/school surrounding •Consumption of soft drinks among children •Influence of peers on food behaviour of children Media •Food advertisement in school •Its Influence on food behaviour and health Physical activity •Facility available at school •Physical education class in school •Play activities /games performed by students in school •Encouragement effort to keep children physically active by school •Usual mode of transport to school and changing pattern •Walking up and cycling to school and its safety 5/9/2018 7
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    RECRUITMENT OF PARTICIPANTS •Homogeneous group in terms of demography and socio- economic characteristics but have varying perspectives • Through home visits/ community influencers inform participants • Select participants who are likely to be participatory and reflective • Attempt to select members who don’t know each other • Group of 6-8 people • Participants should be invited at least 1 or 2 days in advance • Participants should be informed about the time and venue • They should be explained the general purpose of the FGD 5/9/2018 8
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    TEAM • MODERATOR • NOTE-TAKER •Others- Observer Helper 5/9/2018 9
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    Moderator High Control ofContent High Control of Process Low Control of Process Low Control of Content 1 2 3 4 Maximum Structure Expert Mode Process Facilitation Self-managed Group 5/9/2018 10
  • 11.
    Moderator • Introduce thetopic • Aims to facilitate the discussion, use probe for better understanding • Should not convey an impression of being an expert • Detached but kind • Is non-judgemental and creates a permissive environment • Keep FGD Focused • Help less participating people speak • Keep dominating people from speaking too much • Should seek minute details in people’s response • Facilitate transition from one topic from another • Elicit detailed responses • Flexible- able to alter the planned outline according to the situation 5/9/2018 11
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    Note-taker • Tape recordsthe session • Records non-verbal communication • Note level of consensus/ disagreement • Notes the body language • Map out seating • Assigns ID numbers to participants for later identification 5/9/2018 12
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  • 14.
    SOCIO-GRAM • Diagram representingthe pattern of relationships between individuals in a group • Carried out by note-taker • Draw a diagram of the seating positions of the FGD participants • Use a different colour or symbol for the moderator and note-taker • At different points within the FGD record who is speaking and who they are speaking to • If participants or the moderator are speaking to the whole group draw a short arrow • If participants or the moderator are speaking to one person draw an arrow from them to the person they are addressing • Track group interaction through time 5/9/2018 14
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    WHAT WE NEED Equipment •Audio Recorder • Spare batteries • Note-pad and pencil for note- taking • Consent forms • Refreshments Participants • 6-10 participants • Homogeneous • Familiar/ unfamiliar 5/9/2018 17
  • 18.
    WHAT WE NEED Venue Anyplace • Where people can easily reach • Where they will feel comfortable • Any place where 6-12 people can be seated • There is some open space left • A place with minimal intrusions Seating Arrangements • It should facilitate maximum interaction among participants • Best arrangement is to have participants sit facing each other (circle) • Each participant should have the provision to see all the other participants • Seating arrangement at the same level • Participants should feel physically and psychologically comfortable 5/9/2018 18
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    CONDUCTING THE FGD Welcomethe Group Introduction Obtain informed consent Explain recording method Introductory question Present questions one by one (Probe) Stay on track/ redirect discussion gently Ending question Summarize and Group Closure5/9/2018 21
  • 22.
    • Introduce self(moderator) and others • Introduce ground rules - confidentiality etc (can be useful to develop these with participants) • Objections to recording • Why you have been brought together (purpose) • There are no right or wrong answers • Any points of clarification? 5/9/2018 22
  • 23.
    FGD- GHAZIPUR Warming up •Introducedourselves •Purpose •Confidentiality •Introduction of the participants Consent •Consent to participate •Consent to record Discussion •Start from General •Move towards specific •No leading questions Closure •Summarize and recap. Thank the participants •Give refreshments •Ex- Thank you for participating. This has been a very successful discussion. Your opinions will be a valuable asset to the study. We hope you have found the discussion interesting. If there is anything you are unhappy with or wish to complain about, please speak to me later. I would like to remind you that any comments featuring in this report will be anonymous 5/9/2018 23
  • 24.
    FGD- GHAZIPUR • Whenyou think about the health of babies, what do you think you need to do for them to remain healthy? 5/9/2018 24
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  • 26.
    Transcription (lat. trans-scribere= to rewrite) • Transcription is the transfer of an audio or video recording into written form. • It usually originates from simply typewriting the recorded content. • In a transcript, speech is registered in writing and therefore made accessible for analysis. NEED • Verbal statements are ephemeral and what we remember from conversations is often sketchy. • Transcription aims at overcoming this problem by supporting memory. 5/9/2018 26
  • 27.
    DILEMMA • One theone hand, one wants to represent speech in as much detail and in as multifaceted a way as possible in order to provide the reader with an accurate impression of the conversation and thus facilitate its reconstruction. • On the other hand, too many details and too much information can make a transcript difficult to read. • There is thus a tension between the op- posing poles of accurate representation and practical limitations. PARADOX • with the aspiration to accurately represent the multi-faceted verbal discourse, we create a written text that is a linear, one-dimensional document. CAUTION • Even a transcript closely guided by phonetics neglects non-verbal aspects such as odor, room and time setting, visual aspects, facial expressions and gestures. • As one cannot include everything, one must focus on certain aspects. • These aspects will vary depending on your research objective or intended use of the transcript or situation, respectively. 5/9/2018 27
  • 28.
    SIMPLE TRANSCRIPTS • Para-verbaland non-verbal elements of communication are usually omitted. • Dialect and colloquial language is approximated to standard language. • Content is given priority. • The focus of simple transcripts lies on readability. • It is easier to learn to produce such a transcript and the transcription takes less time. COMPLEX TRANSCRIPTS • based on a complex set of transcription rules becomes necessary if the subsequent analysis does not merely focus on the semantic content of a conversation. • In such cases, prosodic elements (e.g. intonation, primary and secondary emphasis, volume, speed and pitch) are included. • If necessary, a phonetic transcription is added, e.g. in dialect research and non-verbal phenomena are documented in a more complex way. 5/9/2018 28
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  • 30.
    The underlying transcriptionrules 1. Transcribe literally; do not summarize. Dialects are to be accurately translated into standard language. If there is no suitable translation for a word or expression, the dialect is retained. 2. Informal contractions are not to be transcribed, but approximated to written standard language. E.g. “gonna” becomes “going to” in the transcript. Sentence structure is retained despite possible syntactic errors. 3. Discontinuations of words or sentences as well as stutters are omitted; word doublings are only transcribed if they are used for emphasis (“This is very, very important to me.”) Half sentences are recorded and indicated by a slash /. 5/9/2018 30
  • 31.
    4. Punctuation issmoothed in favor of legibility. Thus short drops of voice or ambiguous intonations are preferably indicated by periods rather than commas. Units of meaning have to remain intact. 5. Pauses are indicated by suspension marks in parentheses (...). 6. Affirmative utterances by the interviewer, like “uh-huh, yes, right” etc. are not transcribed. EXCEPTION: monosyllabic answers are always transcribed. Add an interpretation, e.g. “Mhm (affirmative)” or “Mhm (negative)”. 7. Words with a special emphasis are CAPITALIZED. 5/9/2018 31
  • 32.
    8. Every contributionby a speaker receives its own paragraph. In between speakers there is a blank line. Short interjections also get their own paragraph. At a minimum, time stamps are inserted at the end of a paragraph. 9. Emotional non-verbal utterances of all parties involved that support or elucidate statements (laughter, sighs) are transcribed in brackets. 10. Incomprehensible words are indicated as follows (inc.). For unintelligible passages, indicate the reason: (inc., cell phone ringing) or (inc., microphone rustling). If you assume a certain word but are not sure, put the word in brackets with a question mark, e.g. (Xylometazoline?). Generally, all inaudible or incomprehensible passages are marked with a time stamp if there isn’t one within a minute. 5/9/2018 32
  • 33.
    STEP 1 inour FGD 5/9/2018 33
  • 34.
    STEP 2 inour FGD 5/9/2018 34
  • 35.
    CODING • Coding isassigning labels to data. • A code is a word/phrase/sentence that represents aspect(s) of data or captures the essence or feature(s) of a data. ESSENCE OF CODING • Reducing the data (without loosing the meaning while capturing the significant ideas) • Understanding phenomenon • Developing construct • Developing theory5/9/2018 35
  • 36.
    TYPES: - 1. OpenCoding 2. Axial Coding 3. Selective coding 5/9/2018 36
  • 37.
    First Cycle coding methods 1)Attributecoding 2)Descriptive coding 3)Emotion coding 4)Evaluation coding 5)In Vivo coding 6)Magnitude coding 7)Process coding 8)Narrative coding 9)Values coding 10)Theming coding Categorizing codes and generating themes based on 1)Relationship between codes 2)Code frequencies 3)Underlying meaning across codes Second cycle coding methods 1)Pattern coding 2)Focused coding 3)Axial coding 4)Theoretical coding 5/9/2018 37
  • 38.
    Coding Methods FunctionExample Attribute coding Coding features of research site, participant and material being studied Participants’ age, gender, and educational level Emotion coding Coding participants’ feeling, emotion, excitement, sensation Hopelessness, anxiety, pessimism, denial In vivo coding Using participant’s own words “never again”, “no negotiation” Value coding Coding participants’ Value, Attitude, and Belief V-education, A-sense of uncertainty, B-existence of discrimination Narrative coding Coding participants’ stories including their interaction with others and retelling them Descriptive coding Assigning topics to aspects of data Normally nouns Primarily for social environment Churches, school, playground, banks, library 5/9/2018 38
  • 39.
    Coding Methods FunctionExample Evaluation coding Assign judgment ‘Foreign’ to them, sense of independence Magnitude coding Assigning intensity, frequency, direction, presence to the codes High, moderate and low income Present and absent motivation Process coding/Action coding Coding “observable activity” and/or ”conceptual action” Walking, cooking, enjoying music, reflecting Theming data Using phrase or sentence to describe or capture the meaning of an aspect of data Ability to take care of the children Ability to pay bills 5/9/2018 39
  • 40.
    Computer aided qualitativedata analysis software (CAQDAS) • ATLAS.ti • MAXQDA • NVivo • HyperRESEARCH • QDA Miner • Qualrus • Transana • Weft QDA 5/9/2018 40
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  • 52.
    • This stepis to group the discrete codes according to conceptual categories. • Idea of clustering the open codes around specific "axes" or points of intersection (Strauss and Corbin). • This step serves to refine and differentiate concepts that are already available and lends them the status of categories. • One category is located at the center and a network of relationships is developed around it. • In the same way as open coding, axial coding is applied to very short textual segments , to larger extracts or to the entire text. AXIAL CODING 5/9/2018 52
  • 53.
    Hypothesis: • First observation:Under conditions where cancer patients complain of pain and request relief, nurses provide comfort not only by giving patients something for pain, but also through touch, soothing talk, and so on. • Second observation: A cancer patient is heard complaining of pain, yet the nurse is not responding in the expected manner. • This does not necessarily mean that the hypothesis is false. • Reason?? • Generating new, provisional, conditional relationships. • Makes the theory more conceptually dense and makes the conceptual linkages more specific. • The analyst can say: “Under these conditions, action takes this form, whereas under these other conditions, it takes another.“ • A major intent of grounded theory strategy is to systematically seek the full range of variation of the phenomena under scrutiny. 5/9/2018 53
  • 54.
  • 55.
    Harmful effects of bottle feeding Infections due to bottle-feed Feelingof exhaustion after bottle feeding Infections due to unhygienic practices 5/9/2018 56
  • 56.
    Misconception regarding breastfeeding Misconception regarding breastfeeding Self-initiation of bottle feedingby mother Self-initiation of bottle-feeding by mother Bottle feeding hygiene practices • Unhygienic practices • Infections due to unhygienic practices Facilitators of bottle feeding • Initiation of bottle-feeding among working mothers • Initiation of bottle-feeding due to inadequate breastmilk • Initiation of bottle-feeding among working mothers • Preference to work over feeding of child Harmful effects of bottle feeding • Infections due to unhygienic practices • Feeling of exhaustion after bottle feeding • Infections due to bottle-feed Other preferences • Preference to bottle over spoon • Preference to other milk over breast milk • Preference to glass over bottle 5/9/2018 57
  • 57.
  • 58.
    SELECTIVE CODING • Corecategory: “consists of all the products of analysis condensed into a few words that seems to explain what this research is all about”. • All categories and subcategories now become systematically linked with the central core category, the one "that appears to have the greatest explanatory relevance" for the phenomenon. • Integrates and synthesizes the categories derived from coding and analysis to now create a theory. • At this point the researcher treats the various code clusters in a selective fashion, deciding how they relate to each other and what stories they tell. Thus the analyst constructs a set of relational statements that can be used to explain, in a general sense, what is going on (Strauss and Corbin,1998) 5/9/2018 59
  • 59.
    • The corecategory represents the central phenomenon of the study. • It is identified by asking questions such as: 1. What is the main analytic idea presented by this research? 2. If I had to conceptualize my finding in a few sentences, what would I say? 3. What does all the action/interaction seem to be about? 4. How can I explain all of the variation that I see between and among the categories? 5/9/2018 60
  • 60.
    Selective coding One of theaxial categories core category Formulate a new category. core category 5/9/2018 61
  • 61.
    • PHENOMENON: thecentral idea, event, happening, incident about which a set of actions or interactions are directed at managing, handling or to which the set of actions is related. • CAUSAL CONDITIONS: what influences the central phenomenon, events, incidences, happenings. • STRATEGIES: for addressing the phenomenon: Purposeful, goal oriented. • CONTEXT: time, place, duration, and locations of events. • INTERVENING CONDITIONS: that shape, facilitate or constrain the strategies that take place within a specific context. • ACTION/INTERACTION: strategies devised to manage, handle, carry out, respond to a phenomenon under a set of perceived conditions. • CONSEQUENCES: outcomes or results of action or interaction, result from the strategies CODING PARADIGM 5/9/2018 62
  • 62.
    Morrow, S. &Smith, M. (1995). “A grounded theory study: Constructions of survival and coping by women who have survived childhood sexual abuse”. In John Cresswell (Ed.), Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (pp. 297-321). CODING PARADIGM If I’ve drunk too much (context), I get (condition) a headache (phenomenon/ axial category). Then I take an aspirin (strategy). After a while it’s better (consequence) 5/9/2018 63
  • 63.
    PHENOMENON “Bottle feeding practices” STRATEGIES Self-initiation of bottlefeeding by mother INTERVENING CONDITIONS • Other preferences • Misconception regarding breastfeeding CONSEQUENCES • Harmful effects of bottle feeding CAUSAL CONDITIONS • Facilitators of bottle feeding CONTEXT • Bottle feeding hygiene practices 5/9/2018 64
  • 64.

Editor's Notes

  • #5 Protocol- Title, researcher, objectives, rational, study setting, population
  • #7 EX- of guides
  • #12 Not trying to reach consensus but explore differences and inconsistencies
  • #23 Four fgd
  • #38 You read through your data several times, Memoing is the act of recording reflective notes about what the researcher is learning from the data Then you start to create tentative labels for chunks of data that summarize what you see happening (not based on existing theory, just based on the meaning that emerges from the data).
  • #53 It is important to note that, when engaging in categorizing/axial coding, these properties are being identified through the interpretive lens of the researcher, who is already beginning to abstract meaning from the data. For example, they decided that the code Class Size fit into a category of codes that they called Classroom/Teacher, which referred to classroom issues that were challenging to the teacher. Typically, axial coding is used particularly in the middle and later stages of an analysis.
  • #54 Suppose the analyst conceived the following Now the researcher must discover why the nurse did not respond as predicted by the hypothesis This latter incident provides a variation of the original hypothesis, which can then be revised to include this and subsequent variations by generating new, provisional, conditional relationships.
  • #60 It serves as an umbrella that covers an accounts for all other codes and categories formulated so far. Integration begins with finding the primary theme of the research known as
  • #63 The actions of an individual as well as interactions between different people revolve around the phenomenon. Causes or causal conditions contribute to the occurrence or development of the phenomenon. contextual conditions are included particularly time, place and duration. Intervening conditions we find the social, political and cultural environment and the individual biography. They are goal oriented and are often performed for particular and specifiable reasons, for which reason one may refer to (interactional) strategies or tactics