The document describes research into producing bricks made entirely from fly ash, called FlashBricks. FlashBricks were produced using a similar manufacturing process as clay bricks. Testing found FlashBricks were about 28% lighter than clay bricks but had higher compressive strength, exceeding some high-quality clay bricks by over 25%. Other properties like absorption and durability also exceeded typical clay bricks. The new fly ash bricks provide an environmentally friendly use of waste ash and have advantages over conventional clay bricks.
This presentation was delivered as part of a two day Lime Kiln repairs and “Hot” lime mix Workshop on the 1st & 2nd May 2013, at Russborough House, near Blessington, Co. Wicklow.
Feedback and comment from the discussions and experiences shared during the two day workshop have been added to the presentation.
In line with the aims and objectives of The Building Limes Forum, the purpose of the training day and this presentation was to share understanding and encourage expertise in the use of building limes.
The presentation is descriptive about the basics of cement and cement industry in india and abroad. this was our project in 1st year of B.arch from school of planning and architecture, bhopal, india.
Its all about the new environment friendly bricks that are now in more demand as compared to clay bricks. So how its useful and what it contains is explained here.
This seminar discusses the effects of using artificial slag and fly ash aggregates in concrete. Specimens will be made with three types of aggregates - cold bonded fly ash, slag, and natural gravel. Tests will measure the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, splitting tensile strength, sorptivity, rapid chloride permeability, gas permeability, water penetration, and fracture properties of the different concretes. The results will help determine how slag and fly ash aggregates impact the engineering properties and performance of concrete.
Cellular Light Weight Concrete Blocks Machine- Manufacturers & Suppliers
Our proficient and dedicated professionals make the utmost use of these facilities and work round the clock with a client centric approach to meet the industrial requirements. These professionals are well versed and have updated knowledge on the latest technology which ensures hassle free and efficient procurement and storage. We have been highly benefited by our facilities, this being one of the reasons for establishing ourselves as a prominent organization.
www.clcblockmachine.in, www.clcplant.com
The document discusses the process of cement manufacturing. It begins with the raw materials used, which include limestone, clay, iron oxide, and aluminum. These materials are quarries, crushed, and transported to a plant for storage. They are then ground together and preheated before being burned in a kiln at 1500°C to produce clinker. The clinker is cooled, ground with gypsum, and stored in silos before being packaged and distributed. The document outlines the characteristics, types, grades, setting process, optimal storage conditions, and common uses of cement in construction.
The document provides information about autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks, including their composition, production process, advantages, and uses. AAC blocks are a lightweight, precast building material made from cement, lime, sand, fly ash and aluminum powder. The production process involves mixing and dosing ingredients, casting the mixture into molds, pre-curing, cutting, and autoclave curing. AAC blocks provide benefits such as thermal insulation, fire resistance, workability, and cost and energy savings in construction.
This presentation was delivered as part of a two day Lime Kiln repairs and “Hot” lime mix Workshop on the 1st & 2nd May 2013, at Russborough House, near Blessington, Co. Wicklow.
Feedback and comment from the discussions and experiences shared during the two day workshop have been added to the presentation.
In line with the aims and objectives of The Building Limes Forum, the purpose of the training day and this presentation was to share understanding and encourage expertise in the use of building limes.
The presentation is descriptive about the basics of cement and cement industry in india and abroad. this was our project in 1st year of B.arch from school of planning and architecture, bhopal, india.
Its all about the new environment friendly bricks that are now in more demand as compared to clay bricks. So how its useful and what it contains is explained here.
This seminar discusses the effects of using artificial slag and fly ash aggregates in concrete. Specimens will be made with three types of aggregates - cold bonded fly ash, slag, and natural gravel. Tests will measure the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, splitting tensile strength, sorptivity, rapid chloride permeability, gas permeability, water penetration, and fracture properties of the different concretes. The results will help determine how slag and fly ash aggregates impact the engineering properties and performance of concrete.
Cellular Light Weight Concrete Blocks Machine- Manufacturers & Suppliers
Our proficient and dedicated professionals make the utmost use of these facilities and work round the clock with a client centric approach to meet the industrial requirements. These professionals are well versed and have updated knowledge on the latest technology which ensures hassle free and efficient procurement and storage. We have been highly benefited by our facilities, this being one of the reasons for establishing ourselves as a prominent organization.
www.clcblockmachine.in, www.clcplant.com
The document discusses the process of cement manufacturing. It begins with the raw materials used, which include limestone, clay, iron oxide, and aluminum. These materials are quarries, crushed, and transported to a plant for storage. They are then ground together and preheated before being burned in a kiln at 1500°C to produce clinker. The clinker is cooled, ground with gypsum, and stored in silos before being packaged and distributed. The document outlines the characteristics, types, grades, setting process, optimal storage conditions, and common uses of cement in construction.
The document provides information about autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks, including their composition, production process, advantages, and uses. AAC blocks are a lightweight, precast building material made from cement, lime, sand, fly ash and aluminum powder. The production process involves mixing and dosing ingredients, casting the mixture into molds, pre-curing, cutting, and autoclave curing. AAC blocks provide benefits such as thermal insulation, fire resistance, workability, and cost and energy savings in construction.
This slideset was prepared as a student group assignment, for a class on-Introduction to Construction Materials. The facts shown and data used are most relevant to the Indian Context. Prepared by- K. Hari Chandana, Sukirti Sah, Tanya Talwar, Rana Sarkar, Akriti Srivastava, Jitendriya Meher, Anshuman Abhisek Mishra : 1st Sem B. Arch, School of Planning & Architecture, Bhopal, MP, India
Cement is a binding material made of calcareous, siliceous, and argillaceous substances. There are various types of cement used for different purposes, including ordinary Portland cement, rapid hardening cement, extra rapid hardening cement, sulphate resisting cement, quick setting cement, low heat cement, Portland pozzolana cement, Portland slag cement, high alumina cement, air entraining cement, supersulphated cement, masonry cement, expansive cement, colored cement, and white cement. The document discusses the chemical composition and functions of cement constituents and manufacturing processes.
Module on pozzolanic materials and fly ash ErankajKumar
This document discusses pozzolanic materials and fly ash. It defines pozzolanic materials as finely powdered materials that can be added to lime or cement mortar to increase durability through chemical reactions. The document outlines various natural and manufactured sources of pozzolanic materials including volcanic ash, burnt clay, slag, ashes of organic origin, and certain sands. It also discusses the properties and reactivity of pozzolans and their effects on mortar and concrete qualities like strength and stiffness. Additionally, the document defines fly ash as a byproduct of burning coal used in concrete for its cementitious properties. It notes the two main types of fly ash, Class C and Class F, and outlines fly ash's
This document provides information about cement, including its composition, properties, functions, quality requirements, grades, and types. Cement is a binding material that is composed mainly of lime, silica, alumina, and iron oxide. It binds sand and gravel together to form concrete. The main functions of cement are to provide binding properties and strength to concrete. Common grades used in India are 33, 43 and 53, defined by their compressive strengths. There are various types of cement used for different purposes like rapid hardening, low heat, sulphate resisting, white/colored cement and others.
Fly ash is a fine powder recovered from coal-fired power plants that is generally spherical in shape ranging from 0.5 to 100 micrometers. It consists mainly of silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and iron oxide. Fly ash can be used to produce bricks containing 60-80% fly ash, along with lime, gypsum, and/or cement and sand. The raw materials are mixed with water and pressed into bricks then cured for 21 days before use. Fly ash brick production is an eco-friendly process that reduces air and water pollution compared to traditional clay brick production.
This document provides an overview of concrete technology. It defines cement and concrete and describes their composition and manufacturing processes. It discusses the properties and types of cement and concrete, how workability is measured, and testing methods for fresh and hardened concrete, including compressive strength, slump, and rebound hammer tests. The document also outlines the processes for mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, curing, and finishing concrete.
Cement is produced by heating limestone and clay at high temperatures to form clinker, which is then ground with gypsum. The key compounds formed are tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium aluminoferrite. When mixed with water, cement undergoes hydration reactions that cause it to harden over time. Tricalcium silicate reacts rapidly and contributes to early strength, while dicalcium silicate reacts slowly and provides later strength. Tricalcium aluminate also reacts quickly but is retarded by gypsum addition. The reactions are exothermic and generate heat.
This document introduces fly ash and its benefits for use in ready-mix concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion that has pozzolanic properties which improve the performance and durability of concrete. When used to partially replace cement in concrete mixtures, fly ash makes the concrete denser and less permeable, improving strength over the long term. Fly ash also reduces the environmental impact of concrete by lowering the amount of cement required, and provides a beneficial use for an industrial byproduct. The presentation discusses the chemistry of fly ash and how it improves concrete, provides local test results demonstrating these benefits, and gives examples of large projects that have successfully used high percentages of fly ash in concrete.
UNIT 1 OF MATERIALTESTING AND EVALUTION BTECH CIVIL SEM 4.
TOPIC TO BE COVERD.
CEMENT
TYPES OF CEMENT
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
USES OF CEMENT
vedio link
https://youtu.be/0a71XEIeEeA
This document discusses the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. It provides background on fly ash, including its generation from coal combustion and characteristics. Fly ash is classified as either Class F or Class C based on its chemical composition. The document outlines experimental programs conducted to study the effects of varying fly ash replacement levels on the workability and compressive strength of concrete. Test results showed workability decreased with higher fly ash content, while compressive strength increased up to 10% replacement but decreased at 15% replacement or more. The conclusion is that fly ash replacement of up to 10% is effective but may require plasticizers at higher replacement levels.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINI CEMENT PLANT...Journal For Research
This research is about analyzing the chemical and physical characteristics of cement and concrete. Cement can be classified based on its chemical properties. The sample taken for this research work is Kamal OPC 53 grade mini cement plant and Ultratech OPC 53 grade major cement plant. The difference can be analyzed by determining the chemical composition of the cement and its effect on physical properties of cement and concrete. Secondly, it is not necessary that in every structural member of a building, the cement used needs to be same. To determine that which cement is more suitable for which structural element this analysis is beneficial. Again, if any new type of admixture needs to be introduced in the concrete, it is important to understand the chemical composition of cement and how the new admixture may react with the cement. Also, this research is about how the changes in chemical composition of cement affect the physical properties of cement and concrete. It is noticed that due to lack in standardization of cement, even the same sample of cement gives different result.
This document provides information on cementing materials, including clay and lime. It discusses the properties, classification, and types of clay. It also describes the production of lime by heating limestone, and the types of lime including fat, hydraulic, and poor lime. Finally, it outlines the manufacture of cement, including the dry and wet processes. The key compounds in cement clinker and their roles in strength development and setting are also summarized.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND DURABILITY STUDIES ON CONCRETE WITH DOLOCHAR AS COAR...Journal For Research
Aggregate is one of the main ingredients in producing concrete. It covers major portion of the total for any concrete mix. The strength of the concrete produced is dependent on the properties of aggregates used. However, the construction industry is increasingly making higher demands of this material because of which it may result in scarcity or unavailable in the future. Hence need for an alternative coarse aggregate arises. The aim for this project is to determine the strength and durability characteristics of structural concrete by replacing coarse aggregates with Dolochar (Scrap material obtained from the manufacturing process of sponge iron), which will give a better understanding on the properties of concrete with these aggregates. The scope of this project is to investigate the possibility of using Dolochar material as an alternative material to coarse aggregate in structural concrete. The experimental investigation were carried out using detailed strength and durability related tests such as compressive strength test of cubes, acid resistance test and Permeability tests were conducted by replacing the coarse aggregates in concrete mixes by Dolochar. Tests were also conducted on the concrete testing cubes for 3,7 and 28 Days. From the experimental investigation it was found that Dolochar material can be used as an alternative for coarse aggregate in concrete However further investigations have to be made to study long term effects.
This document discusses Portland cement and the cement manufacturing process. It begins with an overview of what cement is and how it is used to make concrete. It then describes the industrial process for manufacturing cement, involving grinding raw materials like limestone and clay at high temperatures in a kiln to form clinker, which is then pulverized with gypsum to become Portland cement powder. The document also provides a brief history of cement development and explains how cement kilns can beneficially reuse solid and hazardous wastes as a source of energy and raw material replacement due to the kilns' high temperatures and long retention times.
This document discusses lime, its production, properties, and uses. Lime is produced by heating limestone to high temperatures, which breaks it down into quicklime. Quicklime reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide. This calcium hydroxide can then react with carbon dioxide in the air to reform calcium carbonate, completing the lime cycle. There are different types of lime depending on composition and properties. Lime has various applications including use in mortar, soil stabilization, and agriculture due to its chemical properties. The document outlines the lime production process and provides details on testing and uses of lime.
This document discusses different grades of cement used in construction. It begins with a brief history of cement, noting it was discovered in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin and resembles limestone from Portland. There are three main grades - 33, 43, and 53 - indicating compressive strength in N/mm^2 after 28 days. Grade 33 is for unimportant work like plaster or flooring, while Grade 43 is for general purposes. Grade 53 uses finer particles and gains strength more quickly. The appropriate grade depends on the type of construction work.
The document discusses specifications for aggregates used in concrete from natural sources according to Indian Standard IS 383. It outlines various tests that should be performed on aggregates including aggregate crushing value, impact value, abrasion value, flakiness and soundness. The crushing value and impact value tests determine the strength of aggregates and maximum allowed values are specified based on the application of concrete. The abrasion and soundness tests evaluate durability of aggregates and maximum loss percentages are also standardized. Using aggregates that conform to these specifications and standards ensures production of high quality concrete.
basic knowledge about performance and characteristics of fly ash based concrete. this was my first presentation....so hard core civil engineers might consider me a layman!... anyway its a good way to start knowing gist and basics.
The document describes research into developing alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC) for construction use that achieves high early strength. The researchers created a dry powdered activator by blending sodium silicate and hydrated lime that could be pre-blended with slag. When used to make AASC, this resulted in minimal slump loss over time and compressive strengths similar to ordinary Portland cement concrete at one day. However, AASC exhibited higher drying shrinkage than OPCC. Various methods were investigated to reduce the shrinkage of AASC, such as curing regimes and use of shrinkage-reducing admixtures or porous aggregate, with some success in lowering crack tendency and widths.
PERPORMANCE COMPARISION OF FIRED CLAY BRICKS WITH QUARRYDUST SANDCRETE BRICKSYahaya Hassan Labaran
Brick and block are rectangular building materials traditionally made of clay but now often composed of other materials like concrete. Bricks are produced in bulk quantities and come in various classes, types, sizes, and materials depending on region and time period. Fired bricks are durable and strong building blocks that are laid in patterns known as bonds to form brickwork. Developers in Nigeria have neglected traditional fired clay bricks, instead using foreign materials like sandcrete blocks which are 90% of infrastructure despite bricks being used historically. This project aims to compare the compressive strength of locally produced fired clay bricks and quarry dust sandcrete bricks to determine if sandcrete can replace clay brick based on strength.
This slideset was prepared as a student group assignment, for a class on-Introduction to Construction Materials. The facts shown and data used are most relevant to the Indian Context. Prepared by- K. Hari Chandana, Sukirti Sah, Tanya Talwar, Rana Sarkar, Akriti Srivastava, Jitendriya Meher, Anshuman Abhisek Mishra : 1st Sem B. Arch, School of Planning & Architecture, Bhopal, MP, India
Cement is a binding material made of calcareous, siliceous, and argillaceous substances. There are various types of cement used for different purposes, including ordinary Portland cement, rapid hardening cement, extra rapid hardening cement, sulphate resisting cement, quick setting cement, low heat cement, Portland pozzolana cement, Portland slag cement, high alumina cement, air entraining cement, supersulphated cement, masonry cement, expansive cement, colored cement, and white cement. The document discusses the chemical composition and functions of cement constituents and manufacturing processes.
Module on pozzolanic materials and fly ash ErankajKumar
This document discusses pozzolanic materials and fly ash. It defines pozzolanic materials as finely powdered materials that can be added to lime or cement mortar to increase durability through chemical reactions. The document outlines various natural and manufactured sources of pozzolanic materials including volcanic ash, burnt clay, slag, ashes of organic origin, and certain sands. It also discusses the properties and reactivity of pozzolans and their effects on mortar and concrete qualities like strength and stiffness. Additionally, the document defines fly ash as a byproduct of burning coal used in concrete for its cementitious properties. It notes the two main types of fly ash, Class C and Class F, and outlines fly ash's
This document provides information about cement, including its composition, properties, functions, quality requirements, grades, and types. Cement is a binding material that is composed mainly of lime, silica, alumina, and iron oxide. It binds sand and gravel together to form concrete. The main functions of cement are to provide binding properties and strength to concrete. Common grades used in India are 33, 43 and 53, defined by their compressive strengths. There are various types of cement used for different purposes like rapid hardening, low heat, sulphate resisting, white/colored cement and others.
Fly ash is a fine powder recovered from coal-fired power plants that is generally spherical in shape ranging from 0.5 to 100 micrometers. It consists mainly of silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and iron oxide. Fly ash can be used to produce bricks containing 60-80% fly ash, along with lime, gypsum, and/or cement and sand. The raw materials are mixed with water and pressed into bricks then cured for 21 days before use. Fly ash brick production is an eco-friendly process that reduces air and water pollution compared to traditional clay brick production.
This document provides an overview of concrete technology. It defines cement and concrete and describes their composition and manufacturing processes. It discusses the properties and types of cement and concrete, how workability is measured, and testing methods for fresh and hardened concrete, including compressive strength, slump, and rebound hammer tests. The document also outlines the processes for mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, curing, and finishing concrete.
Cement is produced by heating limestone and clay at high temperatures to form clinker, which is then ground with gypsum. The key compounds formed are tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium aluminoferrite. When mixed with water, cement undergoes hydration reactions that cause it to harden over time. Tricalcium silicate reacts rapidly and contributes to early strength, while dicalcium silicate reacts slowly and provides later strength. Tricalcium aluminate also reacts quickly but is retarded by gypsum addition. The reactions are exothermic and generate heat.
This document introduces fly ash and its benefits for use in ready-mix concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion that has pozzolanic properties which improve the performance and durability of concrete. When used to partially replace cement in concrete mixtures, fly ash makes the concrete denser and less permeable, improving strength over the long term. Fly ash also reduces the environmental impact of concrete by lowering the amount of cement required, and provides a beneficial use for an industrial byproduct. The presentation discusses the chemistry of fly ash and how it improves concrete, provides local test results demonstrating these benefits, and gives examples of large projects that have successfully used high percentages of fly ash in concrete.
UNIT 1 OF MATERIALTESTING AND EVALUTION BTECH CIVIL SEM 4.
TOPIC TO BE COVERD.
CEMENT
TYPES OF CEMENT
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
USES OF CEMENT
vedio link
https://youtu.be/0a71XEIeEeA
This document discusses the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. It provides background on fly ash, including its generation from coal combustion and characteristics. Fly ash is classified as either Class F or Class C based on its chemical composition. The document outlines experimental programs conducted to study the effects of varying fly ash replacement levels on the workability and compressive strength of concrete. Test results showed workability decreased with higher fly ash content, while compressive strength increased up to 10% replacement but decreased at 15% replacement or more. The conclusion is that fly ash replacement of up to 10% is effective but may require plasticizers at higher replacement levels.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINI CEMENT PLANT...Journal For Research
This research is about analyzing the chemical and physical characteristics of cement and concrete. Cement can be classified based on its chemical properties. The sample taken for this research work is Kamal OPC 53 grade mini cement plant and Ultratech OPC 53 grade major cement plant. The difference can be analyzed by determining the chemical composition of the cement and its effect on physical properties of cement and concrete. Secondly, it is not necessary that in every structural member of a building, the cement used needs to be same. To determine that which cement is more suitable for which structural element this analysis is beneficial. Again, if any new type of admixture needs to be introduced in the concrete, it is important to understand the chemical composition of cement and how the new admixture may react with the cement. Also, this research is about how the changes in chemical composition of cement affect the physical properties of cement and concrete. It is noticed that due to lack in standardization of cement, even the same sample of cement gives different result.
This document provides information on cementing materials, including clay and lime. It discusses the properties, classification, and types of clay. It also describes the production of lime by heating limestone, and the types of lime including fat, hydraulic, and poor lime. Finally, it outlines the manufacture of cement, including the dry and wet processes. The key compounds in cement clinker and their roles in strength development and setting are also summarized.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND DURABILITY STUDIES ON CONCRETE WITH DOLOCHAR AS COAR...Journal For Research
Aggregate is one of the main ingredients in producing concrete. It covers major portion of the total for any concrete mix. The strength of the concrete produced is dependent on the properties of aggregates used. However, the construction industry is increasingly making higher demands of this material because of which it may result in scarcity or unavailable in the future. Hence need for an alternative coarse aggregate arises. The aim for this project is to determine the strength and durability characteristics of structural concrete by replacing coarse aggregates with Dolochar (Scrap material obtained from the manufacturing process of sponge iron), which will give a better understanding on the properties of concrete with these aggregates. The scope of this project is to investigate the possibility of using Dolochar material as an alternative material to coarse aggregate in structural concrete. The experimental investigation were carried out using detailed strength and durability related tests such as compressive strength test of cubes, acid resistance test and Permeability tests were conducted by replacing the coarse aggregates in concrete mixes by Dolochar. Tests were also conducted on the concrete testing cubes for 3,7 and 28 Days. From the experimental investigation it was found that Dolochar material can be used as an alternative for coarse aggregate in concrete However further investigations have to be made to study long term effects.
This document discusses Portland cement and the cement manufacturing process. It begins with an overview of what cement is and how it is used to make concrete. It then describes the industrial process for manufacturing cement, involving grinding raw materials like limestone and clay at high temperatures in a kiln to form clinker, which is then pulverized with gypsum to become Portland cement powder. The document also provides a brief history of cement development and explains how cement kilns can beneficially reuse solid and hazardous wastes as a source of energy and raw material replacement due to the kilns' high temperatures and long retention times.
This document discusses lime, its production, properties, and uses. Lime is produced by heating limestone to high temperatures, which breaks it down into quicklime. Quicklime reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide. This calcium hydroxide can then react with carbon dioxide in the air to reform calcium carbonate, completing the lime cycle. There are different types of lime depending on composition and properties. Lime has various applications including use in mortar, soil stabilization, and agriculture due to its chemical properties. The document outlines the lime production process and provides details on testing and uses of lime.
This document discusses different grades of cement used in construction. It begins with a brief history of cement, noting it was discovered in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin and resembles limestone from Portland. There are three main grades - 33, 43, and 53 - indicating compressive strength in N/mm^2 after 28 days. Grade 33 is for unimportant work like plaster or flooring, while Grade 43 is for general purposes. Grade 53 uses finer particles and gains strength more quickly. The appropriate grade depends on the type of construction work.
The document discusses specifications for aggregates used in concrete from natural sources according to Indian Standard IS 383. It outlines various tests that should be performed on aggregates including aggregate crushing value, impact value, abrasion value, flakiness and soundness. The crushing value and impact value tests determine the strength of aggregates and maximum allowed values are specified based on the application of concrete. The abrasion and soundness tests evaluate durability of aggregates and maximum loss percentages are also standardized. Using aggregates that conform to these specifications and standards ensures production of high quality concrete.
basic knowledge about performance and characteristics of fly ash based concrete. this was my first presentation....so hard core civil engineers might consider me a layman!... anyway its a good way to start knowing gist and basics.
The document describes research into developing alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC) for construction use that achieves high early strength. The researchers created a dry powdered activator by blending sodium silicate and hydrated lime that could be pre-blended with slag. When used to make AASC, this resulted in minimal slump loss over time and compressive strengths similar to ordinary Portland cement concrete at one day. However, AASC exhibited higher drying shrinkage than OPCC. Various methods were investigated to reduce the shrinkage of AASC, such as curing regimes and use of shrinkage-reducing admixtures or porous aggregate, with some success in lowering crack tendency and widths.
PERPORMANCE COMPARISION OF FIRED CLAY BRICKS WITH QUARRYDUST SANDCRETE BRICKSYahaya Hassan Labaran
Brick and block are rectangular building materials traditionally made of clay but now often composed of other materials like concrete. Bricks are produced in bulk quantities and come in various classes, types, sizes, and materials depending on region and time period. Fired bricks are durable and strong building blocks that are laid in patterns known as bonds to form brickwork. Developers in Nigeria have neglected traditional fired clay bricks, instead using foreign materials like sandcrete blocks which are 90% of infrastructure despite bricks being used historically. This project aims to compare the compressive strength of locally produced fired clay bricks and quarry dust sandcrete bricks to determine if sandcrete can replace clay brick based on strength.
- Fly ash is a byproduct of coal burning in thermal power plants and is currently a major waste disposal problem.
- The document discusses using fly ash to produce bricks, cement, and fertilizer as ways to utilize it productively.
- Field trials showed that adding an optimal amount of fly ash to soil increased crop yields of rice and wheat, likely by improving soil structure and water retention. However, more research is needed before conclusions can be drawn.
Sustainable production of fired clay bricks using waste foundry sand and sili...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that investigated using waste foundry sand and silica fume as replacements for clay in traditional fired clay bricks. Up to 50% of the clay was replaced with these industrial wastes. Bricks with 25% replacement of foundry sand and 15% replacement of silica fume performed best, meeting the compressive strength requirements for class II bricks. Masonry specimens constructed with these optimized bricks also met the compressive strength requirements. The study demonstrated the potential for more sustainable brick production using industrial wastes.
EFFECT ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE USING FINE AGGREGATE AS PARTIAL R...IRJET Journal
This document investigates the effect of using fly ash as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants and its utilization remains low. The study designs concrete mixes with fly ash replacing fine sand at percentages between 46-54%. The compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity of the concrete mixes are then tested at 7 and 28 days. The results are analyzed to understand the impact of different fly ash replacement levels on the mechanical properties of concrete.
Comparative Study on Fly Ash Bricks and Conventional Clay BricksBhagyashreeNagpure2
The document compares fly ash bricks and conventional clay bricks. Three key points:
1) Fly ash bricks were found to have higher compressive strength (8.11 MPa) than clay bricks (2.38 MPa) based on testing. Fly ash bricks also absorbed less water (10.62%) than clay bricks (16.04%) indicating lower dampness.
2) Fly ash bricks are more environmentally friendly as they utilize an industrial waste (fly ash), whereas clay brick production damages the environment.
3) The conclusion is that fly ash bricks are superior to clay bricks for construction due to their higher strength, lower dampness, lighter weight, and environmental friendliness. Fly ash bricks fulfill
IRJET- Effect on Steel Slag Concrete using Silica Fume along with FlyashIRJET Journal
This document discusses research into using steel slag, fly ash, and silica fume in concrete mixtures to improve strength and durability. It conducted experiments replacing portions of cement with fly ash or silica fume. Results showed additions of these materials increased strength and reduced porosity of concrete. Mixtures containing equal parts fly ash and silica fume performed best, with compressive strength increasing as replacement amounts rose. The study aims to utilize industrial byproducts like steel slag and improve sustainability of concrete.
IRJET- Replacement and Analysis of Clay Bricks by Replacement of Clay with In...IRJET Journal
This document discusses replacing clay with industrial wastes in clay bricks. It aims to utilize locally available waste materials as clay replacements to address clay shortages and reduce environmental threats from wastes. Four waste materials are selected for replacement testing: m-sand, rice husk ash, kiln sand, and wood ash. Bricks with these replacements are produced and tested for properties like density, crushing strength, and water absorption according to industry standards. The results are examined to evaluate using waste materials instead of clay in clay bricks.
use of fly ash and silica fume as a partial replacement of cement in concreteHIMANSHU KUMAR AGRAHARI
this project was done with help of few members, in this project, we have replaced cement partially with fly ash and silica fumes, and tested the cubes with different mix and at different time of curing period
1) Concrete production will change significantly in the next 10 years to reduce carbon emissions and cement usage. Widespread use of supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash and slag will replace up to 30-40% of cement.
2) Mix designs will utilize local materials like crusher fines instead of scarce natural sands. Admixtures will be optimized to improve properties while reducing cement.
3) Specifications will shift from prescriptive standards to performance-based requirements, allowing producers to develop durable, sustainable mixes using local resources and advanced quality control. The number of producers may halve as the industry consolidates around high-tech operations.
Strength Characteristics of Bricks using Composite MaterialsIRJET Journal
The document describes an experimental study on producing bricks using composite materials like sewage sludge, fly ash, and bottom ash. Bricks were produced with different proportions of these waste materials and tested. Bricks containing 10% fly ash and 10% bottom ash showed higher compressive strengths than conventional bricks, at 3.8% and 3.9% respectively. Composite bricks containing equal parts fly ash and bottom ash also performed well, with a compressive strength of 3.9% and water absorption of 15.9%. The study shows these waste materials can be used to successfully produce bricks as an alternative to conventional clay bricks.
IRJET- Analysis of strength Characteristic of Concrete using Vernacular MaterialIRJET Journal
This document analyzes the strength characteristics of concrete using vernacular materials like fly ash and potassium hydroxide as replacements for Portland cement. The study compares the compressive and tensile strengths of normal geopolymer concrete made using sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate to a concrete made using potassium hydroxide and sodium silicate. Test results showed the average compressive strength of the sodium hydroxide concrete was 50.5% higher while the average tensile strength was 34.85% higher compared to the potassium hydroxide concrete. The document concludes that sodium hydroxide produces a more economical and suitable concrete than potassium hydroxide.
In the last decade, the volume of construction waste has risen significantly and social and environmental issues around waste recycling have also been increased. Many analysts contend that recycled concrete aggregates RCAs are mainly useful for non structural concrete purposes. However, this study reveals that the recycled aggregates obtained from concrete collections have good quality concrete. Baton waste from the collapsing structure has been treated and a vast variety of various concentrations are used for the preparation of fresh concrete. Recycled and renewable buildings Waste has long been known to recover manufacturing renewable energy and energy. Among some, gross output is missing. The usage of recycled aggregates decreases the quality of recycled aggregate concrete, which limits its use. Various surface treatment methods were tested to improve the quality of the recycled gross aggregate, such as the purification of the recycled aggregates by water and diluted acid. The pressure characteristics of the refined and untreated field aggregate is contrasted. The results revealed that the tensile strength of the recycled aggregate was compressive, bent and crack less than the natural aggregate. Rajat Saini | Ajay Singh | Swati Dhiman "Study on Recycled Aggregate Concrete" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42499.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comengineering/civil-engineering/42499/study-on-recycled-aggregate-concrete/rajat-saini
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This document compares the properties and costs of conventional clay bricks to fly ash bricks containing different percentages of cement. Fly ash bricks containing 5% cement had the highest compressive strength at 152.1 kg/cm2, 63% higher than conventional bricks. They also had the lowest water absorption at 5.41%, nearly half that of conventional bricks. Efflorescence was lowest in fly ash bricks containing 5% cement at 7% of surface area affected. Cost analysis found that using fly ash bricks with 5% cement in a 1:5 mortar can reduce construction costs by nearly 30% compared to conventional bricks in a 1:4 mortar. Fly ash bricks provide benefits of using an industrial waste product while improving strength and lowering
IRJET- Cost Comparative Study of Fly Ash Brick Masonry and Conventional MasonryIRJET Journal
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Clay bricks are commonly used as building materials. The document discusses the materials, manufacturing process, and properties of clay bricks.
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1. High Performance Bricks from Fly Ash
Obada Kayali1
1
School of Aerospace, Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of New
South Wales at The Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, ACT 2600.
KEYWORDS: fly ash, bricks, compressive strength, lightweight, absorption, high
performance, tensile strength, durability.
ABSTRACT
Bricks whose solid ingredient is 100% fly ash have been manufactured. The
manufacturing process uses techniques and equipment similar to those used in
clay brick factories. The bricks produced were about 28% lighter than clay
bricks. The bricks manufactured from fly ash possessed compressive strength
higher than 40 MPa. This exceeds some of the best of load carrying clay bricks
available by more than 25% and is several times better than acceptable
commercially available common clay bricks. Other important characteristics of
the fly ash bricks have been evaluated. These included absorption capacity,
initial rate of absorption, modulus of rupture, bond strength and durability. The
values of these characteristics for fly ash bricks are excellent and have exceeded
those pertaining to clay bricks. Moreover, fly ash bricks have been produced
with a naturally occurring reddish colour similar to that of normal clay bricks. The
new bricks and process have been patented and the new bricks have been given
the name FlashBricks. This paper presents the results of testing and the
advantages gained by this type of bricks over conventional clay bricks.
INTRODUCTION
The ever increasing volume of fly ash quantities in the world has not been
remotely matched by its utilisation. Australia is an example where such
utilisation has been minimal. The most important and popular use of fly ash in
Australia has been the partial replacement of portland cement. Australia shares
most of the Western countries in similar methods and traditions as far as
residential buildings are concerned. These include bricks as the main
constituent. It is therefore natural that the brick industry presents an opportunity
for the efficient utilisation of the vast quantities of fly ash. Conservative attitudes
are among the factors that limited the use of fly ash in concrete to generally a
maximum of 25% replacement of Portland cement. This conservatism can be
understood in the context of concrete where the ash is mixed raw, and the effects
1
2005 World of Coal Ash (WOCA), April 11-15, 2005, Lexington, Kentucky, USA http://www.flyash.info
2. of high volume replacement are still subject to research and sometimes
controversy. It is however not quite justifiable that the brick industry should take
similar conservative attitude. Environmental concerns have been raised in some
parts of the world where coal is the main power generating resource and where
bricks are also the main building material. Such concerns have resulted in
legislation that obliges the brick industry to incorporate at least 25% by weight of
fly ash and /or bottom or pond ash in the brick making mixture if the industry is
within 50 km from a coal power generation plant.1,2
Some successful ventures
have been reported where fly ash was incorporated in the mixture at the rate of
20 to 50%.3
Nevertheless, there is only little evidence that incorporation of fly ash
in the brick mixture has exceeded the 30% by volume even when the legislation
was obeyed.4
Reasons behind such reluctance are not clear. A most probable
reason is the fear of change in many small factories and the ingrained
conservatism in the attitude of stake holders of the large producers. Added to
this is the fact that with an existing clay brick factory, the incorporation of fly ash
is a potential addition of cost. The possible incompatibility of the ash with the
clay and shale during the various processes of production including the crucial
one of firing may be a legitimate difficulty. At high temperatures beyond 1000o
C,
the temperature and length of time of firing become very sensitive to the type of
ash and of course to the clay and shale if in the same mixture. This would be the
case as long as the factory still uses the ash as partial replacement to the main
clay and shale ingredients. The situation may become completely different when
the ash is the only ingredient of the bricks mixture. Compatibility is no more an
issue in such a case. So far, few attempts at manufacturing bricks from more
than 80% ash have been made.5,6
The author believes that fly ash on its own can
be an excellent raw material for brick making. This has now been proven and a
patent is taken for the manufacture of bricks from fly ash.7
The response of the
ash to firing temperature at 1000o
C and beyond can be accurately controlled
even in small factories. The potential savings with this approach are many.
These are illustrated in the following sections. Savings in production and
transportation costs and producing bricks of superior qualities to those of
standard clay bricks are in addition to the environmental solution that such
venture may bring about.
BRICK PRODUCTION
The bricks, produced according to the patent 7
, have been given the name
FlashBricks. Essentially, the only solid ingredient of the bricks is the ash. The
main liquid ingredient is water. Other ingredients that so far are commercially
protected are cheap, commonly available and, though essential, are only minor in
quantities. The technology, subject of the patent, includes the method of mixing,
forming into moulds, curing and firing. These are easily adaptable by existing
clay brick factories. The technology uses less energy than that needed in the
manufacture of clay bricks. Furthermore, it requires less manpower and less
area is needed for material processing than in the case of clay brick production.
2
3. Table 1. Items of difference in the production process and expected to make cost
difference:
Common Load Bearing Clay
Bricks
Load Bearing FlashBricks
Factory location On site of raw materials Any where, preferably on site
of coal power station
Factory location Must change when material
depletes
No change needed
Excavation needed required None
Raw materials qualities Varies daily consistent
Raw material needed per
1000 bricks
4-5 tonnes of clay and shale 2.75 tonnes of fly ash
Raw materials wastage per
1000 bricks
1.7-2 tonnes of clay and shale None
Grinding of rocks required None to grind
Mixing dry materials required None
Additive (subject to
provisional confidentiality)
None Required @ 0.2L/100 kg
Drying green units 7 days 3 days
Temperature of firing the
units
1000o
C- 1300o
C
(1832 F-2372 F)
1000o
C- 1300o
C
(1832 F-2372 F)
Length of firing time 1day-7 days Few hours (subject to
provisional confidentiality)
Table 1 summarises the differences in the manufacturing process between the
clay bricks and the FlashBricks. A very important saving that can be readily seen
is that of personnel. Since neither excavation nor grinding is needed, the
personnel that are usually employed for such operations will not be required.
Added to this is the need for continual assessment of the raw materials in the
case of clay bricks. Such assessment is not needed in the case of FlashBricks
because the ash is analysed continually at the power generation station as a
mandatory practice. Thus the personnel involved in the assessment of clay
materials will not be required with FlashBricks production. Further market study
of the items outlined above is required so that figures may be assigned to total
savings with FlashBricks.
3
4. So far the production of FlashBricks has been performed in the laboratory. This
has been repeated successfully many times and the testing has produced
consistent results. Figure 1 shows the moulded bricks in their fresh state.
Figure 1. Freshly moulded FlashBricks
Figure 2 shows a brick that had been cured for two days before firing. The bricks
solidify enough to be fired after 24 hours but are best fired after three days of
curing. The brick shown in the photograph of Figure 2 is split open to reveal the
interior structure. The curing is controlled so that consistency of the material is
maintained with no occurrence of cracking. Figure 3 shows a photograph of the
bricks after firing. The bricks’ colour after firing is reddish and very similar to that
of some varieties of clay bricks. Of course other colouring may be obtained by
addition of selected oxides. This, however, was not done with the bricks that are
presented here.
TESTING FLASHBRICKS
A series of tests were performed on FlashBricks in order to compare their
qualities as load bearing bricks with those made from clay. The Australia and
New Zealand Standards AS /NZS 4456:1997 were applied in all the tests
reported here.8-16
Commercially available bricks that are known to be among the
4
5. best in the Australian market were tested and compared to the results from
FlashBricks. The results are shown in Table 2.
Figure 2. The interior of a FlashBrick after 2 days of curing
Figure 3. FlashBricks after firing
5
6. Table 2. Properties of FlashBricks Compared to Clay Bricks
Property
Brick Type
Compressive Strength Modulus of
Rupture
Initial Rate of
Absorption
(IRA)
Absorption
Capacity
Average
Density
Clay Bricks Typical is from12 to 40
MPa. (1740 psi – 5800
psi)
Minimum accepted by
Australian Standard:
7 MPa (1015 psi)
From less than 1
MPa (145 psi) to
greater than 2 MPa
290 psi). Default
value is 0.8 MPa
(116 psi)
Typical range
between 0.2
and 5
kg/m2
/min.
(5.9-147.5
lb/in2
/min)
5-20% 1800-2000
kg/m3
(112-125
lb/ft3
)
FlashBricks 43 MPa
(6235 psi)
10.3 MPa
(1494 psi)
4.5 kg/m2
/min
(133 lb/in2
/min)
10% 1450 kg/m3
(91 lb/ft3
)
Samples of
the best
clay bricks
in
Australian
market
34.8 MPa
(5046 psi)
3.6 MPa
(522 psi)
5.9
kg/m2
/min
(174 lb/in2
/min)
6% 2000 kg/m3
(125 lb/ft3
)
The tensile strength expressed in the form of the Modulus of Rupture value is
nearly three times the value for normal clay bricks. This is an achievement of
considerable importance because it results in much less cracking in the bricks.
Such cracking, whether caused by differential settlement, excessive tensile-
nature loading, salt crystal growth or freezing and thawing, has been a major
concern in the building industry.
The compressive strength is at least 24% better than the very best of the
standard clay bricks that are available on the Australian market. This is also of
great significance because the new bricks may become the main load bearing
elements that would be able to carry several floors more than allowed for the
normal clay bricks.
The density of FlashBricks is 28% less than that of the normal clay bricks. This
of course has great significance on loading floors, ease of construction,
transportation capacity and cost and number of bricks that can be produced per
tonne of raw material. Approximately 265 bricks per tonne can be produced from
clay bricks, while 365 bricks per tonne can be produced from FlashBricks.
6
7. THE INITIAL RATE OF ABSORPTION AND THE ABSORPTION CAPACITY
Two important properties of building bricks are the initial rate of absorption (IRA)
and the absorption capacity. The IRA is of great importance for the laying of the
bricks and bonding with the mortar. A high IRA results in too quick drying of the
mortar and thus weakens the mortar and reduces its adherence to the brick. On
the other hand if the IRA is too low, the surface of the brick adjacent to the mortar
would not absorb the excess water and would result in very weak layer of the
mortar that would not have penetrated enough into the surface crevices and
pores of the brick.
The property of total absorption capacity is also very important for the
performance of the brick. A high absorption results in vulnerability to volume
changes that would result in cracking of the bricks and structural damage in
buildings. It also would lead to cracking in the event of freezing and thawing of
the water inside the pores. Too little absorption however is also not desired.
This is because rain water, rather than getting partially absorbed by the brick,
would tend to run off very quickly towards the joints and may find its way into the
building as well as reduce the durability of the mortar joints.
The results obtained for the IRA and the total absorption capacity for FlashBricks
indicate excellent performance potential in laying and durability. The ease and
efficiency of laying bricks is very much related to the IRA property which also
affects the important property of bond to mortar. Due to the importance of bond
characteristics, a series of bond tests was conducted on FlashBricks and normal
clay bricks.
TESTING THE STRENGTH OF BOND TO MORTAR
The test was done according to ASTM C 1072-00a; bond wrench test.17
Because
the laboratory-made FlashBricks were not extruded, they were compared with
solid clay bricks that were produced using press methods. The mortar was a
typical mortar mix of 1:1:6, being cement: lime: sand respectively. The water
was added such that the flow on the mortar flow table test is between 105-110%
in accordance with AS 2701-2001. The wrench bond test is conducted by
applying an increasing load via a wrench. The wrench is clamped to a brick
which in turn is bonded to other bricks by the mortar, subject of the test. The
lower bricks are secured by a frame. The load at which the upper brick gets de-
bonded is determined, and the bond strength is calculated. The apparatus used
for this test is illustrated in Figure 4. The loading procedure is shown in Figure 5
(a) and (b).
The formula for the calculation of the bond strength is:
bd
P
P
bd
L
P
PL
F l
l
l
g
+
−
+
= 2
)
(
6
7
8. where P is the maximum applied load (Figure 5), Pl is the weight of the loading
arm, L is the distance from the centre of the prism to the loading point (Figure 6),
Ll is the distance from the centre of the prism to the centroid of loading arm, b is
the cross sectional width of the mortar bedded area and d is the cross sectional
depth of the mortar bedded area.
Figure 4. ASTM 1072-00 Bond wrench machine (ASTM 1072, 2000)
Each result is the mean of six tests, each of which comprised three-course high
bricks. Accordingly, the flexural bond strength of FlashBricks is 0.41 MPa (59.5
psi), compared to the value of 0.18 MPa (26.1 psi) for solid clay bricks that
was tested with the same mortar. The minimum required by AS 3700 is 0.20
MPa (29 psi). There is now indirect evidence that the surface texture of
FlashBricks is responsible for the enhanced mechanical bonding between the
brick and the mortar. This is concluded from the nature of the microstructure of
the aggregates made from fly ash by a method that is quite similar to the method
used in FlashBricks. The aggregates referred to here are also patented by the
author and co-inventor.18
The manufacturing method produces ‘crator’ like
8
9. impressions that enhance the interlocking between the aggregate and the
concrete matrix. A micrograph for a slice of a FlashBrick is shown in Figure 6.
Here the surface ‘crator’ like pores are quite evident. It is believed that this
texture is mostly responsible for the improved mechanical adhesion with the
mortar.
Figure 5. Schematic of the loading procedure of the flexural bond test
(a) While loading, and (b) At failure
Figure 6. Details of upper clamping bracket (ASTM C 1072, 2000)
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10. Figure 7. A close-up showing the texture in a slice from FlashBrick.
Figure 8 shows a magnified view of the surface of FlashBrick. The bubble
impressions that still exist on the surface are much less than those, that appear
in a slice of the interior. Nevertheless these surface indentations are believed to
be responsible for the interlocking between the brick surface and the mortar.
Figure 8. A close-up showing the texture on the surface of FlashBrick.
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11. DURABILITY
Resistance to salt attack was evaluated according to Australia and New Zealand
Standard AS/ANZ 4456.10. A zero loss in mass after 15 cycles of exposure to
soaking and drying in sodium sulphates solution, was recorded. This result was
better than that of clay bricks which had a slight mass loss after 15 cycles of salt
exposure. This test, although employs sodium sulphates, and thus is a direct
indication of the ability to resist sulphate attack, is also indirectly indicative of the
ability of the material to resist cycles of freezing and thawing.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The results are indicative of the satisfactory performance of FlashBricks
as load bearing elements. This type of bricks uses 100% fly ash without
mixing with clay and shale. It, therefore provides a large venue for the
disposal of fly ash in a very efficient, useful and profitable way.
2. The mechanical properties of FlashBricks have exceeded those of the
standard load bearing clay bricks. Notable among these properties are
the compressive strength and the tensile strength. Compressive strength
was 24% better than good quality clay bricks. Tensile strength was nearly
three times the value for standard clay bricks.
3. Comparison between the bond strength of FlashBricks to mortar and that
of comparable shaped and commonly used solid clay bricks showed that
the FlashBricks have a bond that is 44% higher than the standard clay
brick.
4. There is evidence that the microstructural feature of the surface of
FlashBrick is characterised by a rougher texture than that of clay bricks.
This characteristic is believed to be responsible for the increased bond
strength with mortar.
5. The resistance of the bricks to repeated cycles of salt exposure showed
zero loss of mass and indicated excellent resistance to sulphate attack.
6. The density of FlashBricks is 28% less than that of standard clay bricks.
This reduction in the weight of bricks results in a great deal of savings
amongst which are savings in the raw materials and transportation costs
and savings to the consumer, that result from increased number of units
and reduction in the loads on structural elements.
7. The process of manufacture of FlashBricks indicate clearly that there is
much savings to be done during the making of the bricks. These savings
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12. arise mainly from the uniformity of the raw material and the reduction in
firing time as well as from doing away with whole processes of mining,
transporting, mixing and grinding, that are necessary in the case of the
clay and shale based bricks.
REFERENCES
[1] Ministry of Environment and Forests, Notification, Extraordinary, Part II,
Section 3, Subsection (ii),The Gazette of India, 14 September, 1999.
[2] Kumar, V., Mathur, M., and Kharia, P. S., Fly ash management: Vision for
the New Millenium, Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment
Council, News and Views, 25, March, 2003,
www.tifac.org.in/news/flymgm.htm.
[3] Illinois Department of Commerce and Community Affairs, Manufacturing
Commercial Bricks with Fly Ash from Illinois Coals,
www.commerce.state.il.us.
[4] Lingling, X., et al., Study on fired bricks with replacing clay by fly ash in
high volume ratio. Construction and Building Materials. In Press, Corrected
Proof.
[5] Pimraksa, K., Wilhelm, M., Kochberger, M. and Wruss, W., A New
Approach to the Production of Bricks Made of 100% Fly Ash, 2001
International Ash Utilization Symposium, Center for Applied Energy
Research, University of Kentucky, Paper # 84, http://www.flyash.info.
[6] Scotash, Technical Papers and studies,
http://www.scotash.com/case_studies/case2_bricks.html.
[7] Kayali, O. and Shaw, K.J., Manufactured Articles from Fly Ash, Patent No.
PCT/AU03/01533, Australia.
[8] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.4:1997, Method 4:
Determining Compressive Strength of Masonry Units.
[9] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.15:2003, Method 15:
Determining Lateral Modulus of Rupture.
[10] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.17:2003, Method 17:
Determining Initial Rate of Absorption (Suction).
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13. [11] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.14:2003, Method 14:
Determining Water Absorption Properties.
[12] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.8:2003: Method 8:
Determining Moisture Content and Dry Density and Ambient Density.
[13] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.10:2003: Method 10:
Determining Resistance to Salt Attack.
[14] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4456.4:2003: Method 4:
Determining The Compressive Strength Of Masonry Units.
[15] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 2701-2001: Methods of
Sampling and Testing ortars for Masonry Constructions.
[16] Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 3700-2001: Masonry
Structures.
[17] American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Masonry Flexural Bond Strength, ASTM C 1072-00a.
[18] Kayali, O and Shaw, K.J., Concrete aggregate, Unisearch Limited,
University of New South Wales, US Patent No:6,802,896, Oct 12, 2004,
International No: PCT/AU02/00593, and European Patent Registration
No.02721860.1-2111-AU0200593.
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