Pakistan relies on various feed resources to support its livestock population, including crop residues, grazing lands, cultivated fodders, grains, and byproducts. However, there is a large gap between the nutrient requirements of Pakistan's livestock and the available feed supplies. Non-conventional feed resources could help fill this gap by providing alternative feeds that do not compete with human food needs. These include agro-industrial byproducts and plant or animal byproducts. While many non-conventional feeds are available in Pakistan, more research is still needed on their nutritional value and efficient use in livestock diets. Wider adoption of non-conventional feeds could help improve self-sufficiency and reduce production costs.
This slides contains information on precision feeding in dairy cattle and requirement of energy, protein, fat, minerals and vitamins of a dairy cattle during lactation. Precision feeding protects reproductive health and milk production while reducing the nutrient loss in manure.
Only 25-35% of the N in feed goes into milk, with the rest excreted in feces and urine.
Dairy diets often have 120-160% of the P and that the excess is excreted in the manure.
Cost of feed can be reduced.
Precision feeding helps to improve water quality
Improving the efficiency of use of feed N.
Reduce SARA condition.
Controlled-release urea in dairy cattle feed.
Straw treatment-Ammoniation.
Reducing Enteric Methane Losses from Ruminant Livestock.
Phase feeding in dairy cattle.
Feeding bypass fat in early lactation.
Use of chelated minerals in dairy animals.
Nutraceuticals in dairy animal precision feeding.
10. Use of area specific mineral mixture to precise dairy animal nutrition.
11. TMR in precision nutrition.
12. Manipulation of dietary CAD.
Five distinct feeding phases can be defined to attain optimum production, reproduction and health of dairy cows:
Early lactation—0 to 70 days (peak milk production) after calving (postpartum).
Peak DM intake—70 to 140 days (declining milk production) postpartum.
Mid and late lactation—140 to 305 days (declining milk production) postpartum.
Dry period—60 days before the next lactation.
Transition or close-up period—14 days before to parturition.
Feed top quality forage.
Make sure the diet contains adequate amounts of CP, DIP and UIP.
Increase grain intake at a constant rate after calving.
Consider adding fat (0.4-0.6 kg/cow/day) to diets.
Allow constant access to feed.
Minimize stress conditions.
Limit urea to 80-160g/day.
Buffers, such as Na bicarbonate alone or in combination with Mg oxide (rumen pH)
In Transition period
Increase grain feeding, so cows are consuming 4.5-6 kg grain/day at calving (1% of B.wt)
Increase protein in the ration to between 14 - 15 % of the ration DM
Limit fat in the ration to 0.1kg. High fat feeding will depress DM intake.
Maintain 2.5-4kg of long hay in the ration to stimulate rumination.
Feed a low-Ca ration (< 0.20%, reduce Ca intake to 14 to 18 g/d)
Also, feed a diet with a negative dietary electrolyte balance (-10 to -15meq/100 g DM) may alleviate milk fever problems
Niacin (to control ketosis) and/or anionic salts (to help prevent milk fever) should be included in the ration during this period.
This slides contains information on precision feeding in dairy cattle and requirement of energy, protein, fat, minerals and vitamins of a dairy cattle during lactation. Precision feeding protects reproductive health and milk production while reducing the nutrient loss in manure.
Only 25-35% of the N in feed goes into milk, with the rest excreted in feces and urine.
Dairy diets often have 120-160% of the P and that the excess is excreted in the manure.
Cost of feed can be reduced.
Precision feeding helps to improve water quality
Improving the efficiency of use of feed N.
Reduce SARA condition.
Controlled-release urea in dairy cattle feed.
Straw treatment-Ammoniation.
Reducing Enteric Methane Losses from Ruminant Livestock.
Phase feeding in dairy cattle.
Feeding bypass fat in early lactation.
Use of chelated minerals in dairy animals.
Nutraceuticals in dairy animal precision feeding.
10. Use of area specific mineral mixture to precise dairy animal nutrition.
11. TMR in precision nutrition.
12. Manipulation of dietary CAD.
Five distinct feeding phases can be defined to attain optimum production, reproduction and health of dairy cows:
Early lactation—0 to 70 days (peak milk production) after calving (postpartum).
Peak DM intake—70 to 140 days (declining milk production) postpartum.
Mid and late lactation—140 to 305 days (declining milk production) postpartum.
Dry period—60 days before the next lactation.
Transition or close-up period—14 days before to parturition.
Feed top quality forage.
Make sure the diet contains adequate amounts of CP, DIP and UIP.
Increase grain intake at a constant rate after calving.
Consider adding fat (0.4-0.6 kg/cow/day) to diets.
Allow constant access to feed.
Minimize stress conditions.
Limit urea to 80-160g/day.
Buffers, such as Na bicarbonate alone or in combination with Mg oxide (rumen pH)
In Transition period
Increase grain feeding, so cows are consuming 4.5-6 kg grain/day at calving (1% of B.wt)
Increase protein in the ration to between 14 - 15 % of the ration DM
Limit fat in the ration to 0.1kg. High fat feeding will depress DM intake.
Maintain 2.5-4kg of long hay in the ration to stimulate rumination.
Feed a low-Ca ration (< 0.20%, reduce Ca intake to 14 to 18 g/d)
Also, feed a diet with a negative dietary electrolyte balance (-10 to -15meq/100 g DM) may alleviate milk fever problems
Niacin (to control ketosis) and/or anionic salts (to help prevent milk fever) should be included in the ration during this period.
Formulating Diets for Groups of Lactating CowsDAIReXNET
Dr. Bill Weiss of The Ohio State University presented this material for DAIReXNET on February 26, 2015. For the full presentation, please visit our archives at http://www.extension.org/pages/15830/archived-dairy-cattle-webinars
Manipulations of rumen function that can augment livestock productivity are;
Correction of concentrate to roughage ratio
Feed bypass or escaped nutrients
Defaunation of rumen
Use of yeast as probiotics
Use of anaerobic fungi
Use of other feed additives
Protein quality determination in monogastric animals, we can determine which protein is better in case of monogastric animals, Sri Venkateswara veterinary university, Animal nutrition, Vishnu Vardhan Reddy
Round the year fodder crop production in northern, southern,eastern and western regions of India covering all the available fodders and their cultivation practices, management practices, crop rotations and status of fodder crop availability in India region wise
Formulating Diets for Groups of Lactating CowsDAIReXNET
Dr. Bill Weiss of The Ohio State University presented this material for DAIReXNET on February 26, 2015. For the full presentation, please visit our archives at http://www.extension.org/pages/15830/archived-dairy-cattle-webinars
Manipulations of rumen function that can augment livestock productivity are;
Correction of concentrate to roughage ratio
Feed bypass or escaped nutrients
Defaunation of rumen
Use of yeast as probiotics
Use of anaerobic fungi
Use of other feed additives
Protein quality determination in monogastric animals, we can determine which protein is better in case of monogastric animals, Sri Venkateswara veterinary university, Animal nutrition, Vishnu Vardhan Reddy
Round the year fodder crop production in northern, southern,eastern and western regions of India covering all the available fodders and their cultivation practices, management practices, crop rotations and status of fodder crop availability in India region wise
More fuel for the food-feed debate (FAO , 2022)Wouter de Heij
See also:
https://www.foodlog.nl/artikel//twee-gebieden-en-twee-gedachten-over-eiwitproductie-voor-mensen/allcomments/#comment-323767
And
https://www.food4innovations.blog
Goat cum Fish Farming - Present Status and Prospect in Bangladeshihn FreeStyle Corp.
In a country like Bangladesh where land is scarce, effort should be taken to increase production through integration of various production system like animal-cum-fish or rice-cum-fish culture for efficient utilization of available meagre resources and maximization of production of diversified products, from a minimum area, which will increase the income of the farmers and would enhance food production. A multi-commodity farming system presents more advantages to a mono-cropping system. But the commodity-integration must fit into the particular farmer's capability, resources and need as well as the social, economic and environmental factors around him.
Fish- livestock farming systems are recognized as highly assured technology where predetermined quantum of livestock waste obtained by rearing the live stock in the pond area is applied in pond to raise the fish crop without any other additional supply of nutrients. The main potential linkages between livestock and fish production concern use of nutrients, particularly reuse of livestock manures for fish production. The term nutrients mainly refer to elements such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) which function as fertilizers to stimulate natural food webs rather than conventional livestock nutrition usage such as feed ingredients. Both production and processing of livestock generate by-products that can be used for aquaculture. Direct use of livestock production wastes is the most widespread and conventionally recognized type of integrated farming. Production wastes include manure, urine and spilled feed; and they may be used as fresh inputs or be processed in some way before use.
Based on the type of livestock used for integration there are many combinations in livestock-fish systems. Some of the combination are listed and discussed below.
Cattle-Fish Culture
Manuring of fish pond by using cow dung is one of the common practices all-over the world. A healthy cow excretes over 4,000-5,000 kg dung, 3,500-4,000 lt urine on an annual basis. Manuring with cow dung, which is rich in nutrients results in increase of natural food organism and bacteria in fishpond. A unit of 5-6 cows can provide adequate manure for 1 ha of pond. In addition to 9,000 kg of milk, about 3,000-4,000 kg fish/ha/year can also be harvested with such integration.
Cowshed should be built close to fishpond to simplify handling of cow manure. A cow requires about 7,000-8,000 kg of green grass annually. Grass carp utilizes the left over grasses, which are about 2,500 kg. Fish also utilize the fine feed which consists of grains wasted by cows. In place of raw cow dung, biogas slurry could be used with equally good production. Twenty to thirty thousand kg of biogas slurry are recycled in 1 ha water area to get over 4000 kg of fish without feed or any fertilizer application.
Pig-Fish system
The waste produced by 30-40 pigs is equivalent to 1 tonne of ammonium sulphate. Exotic breeds like White Yorkshire, Landrace and Hampshire are reared in pig-sty near the fish pond. Depending on the size of the fishponds and their manure requirements, such a system can either be built on the bund dividing two fishponds or on the dry-side of the bund. Pigsties, however, may also be constructed in a nearby place where the urine and dung of pigs are first allowed to the oxidation tanks (digestion chambers) of biogas plants for the production of methane for household use. The liquid manure (slurry) is then discharged into the fishponds through small ditches running through pond bunds. Alternately, the pig manure may be heaped in localized places of fishponds or may be applied in fishponds.
The peer-reviewed International Journal of Engineering Inventions (IJEI) is started with a mission to encourage contribution to research in Science and Technology. Encourage and motivate researchers in challenging areas of Sciences and Technology.
FORAGE SEED - PRENEURSHIP FOR RURAL EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME GENERATION Part - Ajaisingh277
Seeds are the foundation of forage production. Technology facilitates in day-to-day operations for the system, but without a regular supply of quality seed in sufficient quantity, yields and crop quality can not be sustainably achieved. There is a large gap between demand and availability of forage crop seeds. With this in view, this presentation is made to augment forage – seed - preneurship at rural base. The approach is to equip seedpreneurs with desirable knowledge about product, financial and marketing aspects; higher technical skill and managerial expertise.
Here you find all the subject names of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) 2ND semester, their theory and practical course contents & books
recommended.
Here you find all the subject names of Doctor of
Veterinary Medicine (DVM) 4th semester, their
theory and practical course contents & books
recommended.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
1. Feed resources of Pakistan for poultry, conventional and non conventional feed resources
Pakistan's livestock population is supported by feed resources derived from the crop sector,
from rangeland and other grazing areas, and from agroindustrial byproducts. The type,
availability and utilization of these feed resources vary greatly in the country's different
agroecological zones. In order of importance, the major feed resources are crop residues (46%),
grazing (27%), cultivated fodders (19%), cereal/legume grains and by-products (6%) and oil
cakes, meals and animal protein (2%).
Most farmers (about 75%) have small land holdings on which most of the livestock population is
concentrated. The smallholders' priority is to grow cereal grain for human consumption, but
these crops also provide straw and stover for their animals. In the case of wheat, the value of
the straw is around 60% of that of the grain. An estimated 40 million t of crop residues are
produced annually in Pakistan, out of which 52.5 and 22% are contributed by wheat and rice,
respectively. Traditionally, cereal straws are fed to cattle and buffalo year-round, but their
proportion in the ration increases during periods of feed scarcity. Treatment of straw with urea
is not commonly practiced by farmers, partly due to weak extension services but mainly
because these technologies appear unsuitable for resource-poor farming systems.
Cultivated fodders are used as cut-and-carry feeds and may include berseem, oats, rape, barley
and sometimes wheat during the winter season, while, maize, sorghum and millet during the
summer season. Most of these crops are ready for harvesting about 2 to 3 months after sowing.
Periods of scarcity occur in May-July and again in November-December. Of the total cultivated
area, only 13% is devoted to fodder crop production. Despite large increases in the ruminant
population (62%) during the past 20 years, the land devoted to fodder crops has declined by
about 17%, with a corresponding increase in land used for food grain production. This has
further increased the dependence of livestock on crop residues and by-products.
Fodder crop yields are very low in traditional farming systems, primarily due to the low use of
inputs by farmers. With improved seed and production technology, they can be increased by up
to 250%. In recent years, farmers have shown great interest in cultivating high-yielding fodder
varieties such as Napier grass, sadabahar (Andropogon gayanus) and multi-cut oats. Fodder
conservation through silage or hay making is not commonly practiced.
Farmers collect weeds and grasses for use as fodder while they tend their cultivated crops. In
addition, the grazing of animals on roadsides and canal banks, and on fallow or unutilized land
is a common practice in most areas. Fodder trees and shrubs also contribute to the overall feed
supply, particularly in hilly areas. In the plains, sugarcane is another major resource, supplying
13.3 million t of tops. Depending on the market price, whole sugarcane plant may be fed to
lactating cattle and buffalo.
Some 24.83 million ha of rangeland contribute about 16% to the total availability of feed dry
matter. In some places, however, rangeland provides about 30% of the total feed supply. Due
to continuous overgrazing and lack of range improvement, carrying capacity and the quality of
2. grasses is deteriorating alarmingly. An exception is the highland grazing areas, but use of these
is constrained by climatic factors and remoteness. Transhumant and pastoral herdsmen, with
their flocks of goats and sheep, are the main users.
The major sources of supplementary feed in Pakistan are by-products from cereal milling and
oilseed production. By-products of animal origin play a minor part. Wheat and rice bran and
rice polishings are the main milling by-products. Cottonseed cake, rapeseed cake and maize oil
cake account for almost two-thirds of the total protein supplement used to feed dairy animals.
Meals of vegetable and animal origin are relatively costly and used only in poultry rations. A
considerable quantity of molasses is produced annually (1.14 million ton per year), but its use in
animal rations is limited, mainly due to alternative uses in distillery, export to other countries
and difficulties in transportation and storage at local level. The introduction of molasses-urea
blocks was tried as a strategy for increasing ruminant production in dry areas, but has not yet
been widely adopted.
Pakistan entered the world market for animal feeds in the early 1970s. By 1991-1992, the
export of animal feed ingredients (oil cakes and cereal brans) to West Asian countries was
fetching US$ 5.73 million annually. In 1993-1994, however, these exports fell sharply to US$
0.486 million.
Soyabean meal is the major feed imported, used for manufacturing compound poultry feed.
The country has 215 poultry feed mills, but only five mills producing compound feed for
ruminants. Generally, mixed concentrate feeds for ruminants are prepared at home by farmers.
It has been calculated that the nutrients available under the present pattern of feed utilization
do not meet the requirements of Pakistan's existing livestock population. There appear to be
deficiencies of 39.4% of the TDN and 56.7% of the pop requirements. There is a growing trend
towards the establishment of more intensive dairy cattle and buffalo production systems in
pert-urban areas, while intensification in the poultry sector has been well under way since
1970.
Non-conventional feed resources (NCFR):
The non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) refer to all those feeds that have not been
traditionally used in animal feeding and or are not normally used in commercially produced
rations for livestock. Commonly, a variety of feeds from perennial crops and feeds of animal
and industrial origin.
The term NCFR has been frequently used to describe such new sources of feedstuffs as palet oil
mill effluent and palm press fibre (oil palm by-products), single cell proteins, and feed material
derived from agro industrial by-products of plant and animal origin. By-products and those from
the processing of sugar, cereal grains, citrus fruits and vegetables from the processing of food
for human consumption also comes under category of NCFR.
3. Need of Non-conventional feed resources:
There are serious shortages in animal feeds of the conventional type. The grains are required
almost exclusively for human consumption. With increasing demand for livestock products as a
result of rapid growth in the world economies and shrinking land area, future hopes of feeding
the animals and safeguarding their food security will depend on the better utilization of
unconventional feed resources which do not compete with human food. The availability of feed
resources and their rational utilization for livestock represents possibly the most compelling
task facing planners and animal scientists in the world. The situation is acute in numerous
developing countries where chronic annual feed deficits and increasing animal populations are
common, thus making the problem a continuing saga.
Thus non-conventional feeds could partly fill the gap in the feed supply, decrease competition
for food between humans and animals, reduce feed cost, and contribute to self-sufficiency in
nutrients from locally available feed sources. It is therefore imperative to examine for cheaper
non-conventional feed resources that can improve intake and digestibility of low quality
forages. Feedstuffs such as fish offal, duckweed and kitchen leftovers (i.e., potato peel, carrot
peel, onion peel, and cabbage leftover), poultry litter, algae/Spirulina, Leucaena leaf, local
brewery and distillery by-products, sisal waste, cactus, coffee parchment and coffee pulp are
commonly used in India, and could be invaluable feed resources for small and medium size
holders of livestock.
Advantages of NCFR:
a) These are end products of production and consumption that have not been used.
b) They are mainly organic and can be in a solid, slurry or liquid form. Their economic value is
often very less.
c) Fruit wastes such as banana rejects and pineapple pulp by comparison have sugars which
are energetically very beneficial.
d) The feed crops which generate valuable NCFR are excellent sources of fermentable
carbohydrates eg. cassava and sweet potato and this is an advantage to ruminants because of
their ability to utilize inorganic nitrogen.
e) Concerning the feeds of crop origin, the majority are bulky poor-quality cellulosic roughages
with a high crude fibre and low nitrogen contents, suitable for feeding to ruminants.
f) They have considerable potential as feed materials and their value can be increased if they
are converted into some usable products.
Agro-industrial by-products
4. Appropriate use of relatively inexpensive agricultural and industrial by-products is of
paramount importance for profitable livestock production. However, high cost and low
availability of conventional livestock feedstuffs frequently demand consideration of by-products
even if efficiency of utilization is low. Efficient use of by-products relies on their chemical and
physical properties, which influence production system outputs. In developing countries, grain,
which forms the bulk of concentrate feeds for livestock, is both in short supply and expensive
due to direct competition with human food uses.
Natural pasture that is estimated to contribute to 80–90% of livestock feeds and whose quality
is seasonally variable is the main source of feed in arid and semi-arid pastoral areas, while crop
residues contribute up to 50% of the feed supply in mixed-farming system. Grazing lands are
steadily shrinking by conversion to arable lands, and natural pastures are also restricted to
areas that are marginal and have little farming potential. The reduction in natural pasture has
led to overutilization and domination by undesirable forage species resulting in partial
dependence on crop residues by most ruminants, which has reduced livestock productivity. The
increasing human demands for several foods (i.e. olive oil, vegetables, wine, fruit juices, etc.)
led to a considerable increase of lands occupied by crops producing these feeds. Consequently,
huge amounts of agro-industrial by-products are available in numerous developing countries
(e.g. molasses, olive cake, winery marc, etc.), which are still not fully utilized in livestock
feeding. Most of these AIBPs are low in main nutrients. Moreover, the difficulty of the use of
these feed sources as fresh material for extended periods and the lack of efficient ways for their
integration in feeding calendars may account for their under-utilization.
MAJOR BY-PRODUCTFEEDS FROM TREE AND CROPS
5. MINOR BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
FEEDING OF POULTRY
Feeding constitutes the fundamental and major management concern in poultry production
since major expenditure (60-70%) in poultry rising is feed cost. Efficiency in feeding therefore is
one of the key factors for successful poultry production. More than 40 nutrients are required by
the poultry. They can be arranged into six classes according to their chemical nature, functions
they perform and the ease with which they are chemically determined.
Feed Ingredients
Conventional poultry rations usually include many cereals like maize, rice, wheat, oat, barley;
and a few cereal byproducts such as wheat-bran or rice polish, animal and vegetable protein
sources like fish-meal, meat-meal, soybean-oil-meal, groundnut-cake, etc. according to their
6. availability. The whole ration is fortified with adequate minerals and vitamins either in
chemically pure or through ingredients known to be rich in these nutrients.
With the cost of feed soaring high and the availability of conventional ingredients becoming
scarce, intensive and continuous efforts are being made to determine the nutritive value of
agro industrial byproducts to replace more costly ingredients in poultry rations. The following
are some of the common feedstuffs used for making poultry rations in this country.
Conventional Poultry Feeds
1. Maize: It is highly digestible and contains very little fibre. It is used as a source of energy
and is low in protein, especially lysine, and sulphur-containing amino acids. The yellow
varieties are a good source of vitamin A and xanthophyll. The latter is responsible for
the yellow skin in certain breeds of fowl.
2. Barley: Barley is not very palatable because of its high fibre content and should not
constitute more than 15 per cent of the ration.
3. Oat: Oat is not very palatable because of its high fibre content. It should not constitute
more than 20 per cent of the ration. Because of its manganese content, it may help in
preventing hock disorders, feather pulling and cannibalism.
4. Wheat: Wheat can be used for replacing maize as a source of energy.
5. Wheat bran: It is bulky and quite laxative on account of its high fibre, manganese and
phosphorus content.
6. Pearl millet: This is a very useful feedstuff, similar to wheat in its nutritive value.
7. Rice: Broken grains of rice can be used for replacing maize.
8. Rice polish: This is a very good substitute for cereal grains and can be used up to 50 per
cent of the ration. Because of the high oil content, it is likely to become rancid on
storage under warm conditions.
9. Deoiled rice polish: Energy content of deoiled rice polish is low because of the removal
of fat, but it is rich in protein and ash content.
10. Sorghum: The feeding value of sorghum is similar to that of maize. But it has a higher
protein content, quite palatable and maybe used in place of maize. Sorghum-meal is a
good source of some amino acids, but costlier than other oilcakes.
11. Groundnut-cake: It is quite palatable and is widely used as a source of protein in poultry
rations. It contains about 40 per cent protein.
12. Fish-meal: Fish-meal is one of the best poultry feedstuffs as a source of animal protein.
Its composition varies widely depending upon whether it is made from whole bony fish
or fish cannery scraps. Most Indian fish-meals contain 45 to 55 per cent protein. The
presence of fish scales reduces its feeding value.
13. Limestone: Limestone is a source of calcium. It should not contain more than 5 per cent
magnesium.
14. Oyster-shell: Oyster-shell contains more than 38 per cent calcium, and is a good
substitute for limestone. It is quite palatable.
8. Rubber Rubber seed meal
Sal Sal seed cake
Tamarind
Tamarind seed hulls
Tamarind seed cake
Conclusion
The main reason for the poor animal production is the inadequate supply and low level of
feeding due to serious shortage of feedstuffs. A major gap exists between the requirements
and supplies of nutrients for feeding of animal, the non conventional feeds could partly fill this
gap. More information is required on chemical composition, nutritive value and their utilization.
Farmers are not aware of the nutritive value of some feed sources and the way for their
efficient integration in livestock feeding. The involvement of local extension agencies in
technology development for efficient use of NCFR, assessment and transfer is equally
important. Several factors may account for their limited use, among which is their low nutritive
value, Seasonal availability, high cost of handling and transportation from the production site to
the farm, presence of anti-nutritional factors. It is essential to increase feeds by growing more
fodders, propagating agro and social forestry, improving the nutritive value of crop residues
and utilizing other NCFRs. Crop residues, AIBPs and browse foliage are certain an increasingly
important role as feeds in the future, as human and livestock populations expand.