this is a review about evolution of antibiotic resistance. I tried to answer how bacteria acquire new genes to resist, how they choose, what are people doing to prevent this increasing resistance levels.
Los días 7 y 8 de mayo organizamos en la Fundación Ramón Areces con la Fundación General CSIC el Simposio Internacional 'Microbiología: transmisión'. La "transmisión" en microbiología hace referencia al proceso por el que material genético es transferido de una célula a otra, de una población a otra. Es un proceso clave para entender el origen y la evolución de los seres vivos. El objetivo de esta reunión era conocer mejor la logística de la transmisión para ser capaces de modular o suprimir algunos procesos de transmisión dañinos.
Fernando Vaquero-El impacto de las ciencias ómicas en la medicina, la nutrici...Fundación Ramón Areces
El 29 de marzo de 2016 celebramos un Simposio Internacional sobre el 'Impacto de las ciencias ómicas en la medicina, nutrición y biotecnología'. Organizado por la Fundación Ramón Areces en colaboración con la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina y BioEuroLatina, abordó cómo un mejor conocimiento del genoma humano está permitiendo notables avances hacia una medicina de precisión.
Evolution Of Bacteria
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago. Bacteria were widespread on Earth at least since the latter part of the Paleoproterozoic, roughly 1.8 billion years ago, when oxygen appeared in the atmosphere as a result of the action of the cyanobacteria. Bacteria have thus had plenty of time to adapt to their environments and to have given rise to numerous descendant forms.
Host-pathogen Interactions, Molecular Basis and Host Defense: Pathogen Detect...QIAGEN
Host–pathogen interactions are strikingly complex during infection. This slidedeck provides an overview of the molecular basis of these intricate interactions: the impact of microbiota on innate and adaptive immunity, metabolism, and insulin resistance and host defense mechanisms. Various research tools will be introduced to simplify and streamline each step of studying the host response, enabling detection of pathogens, analysis of gene expression and regulation, epigenetic modification, genotyping and signal transduction pathway activation.
Los días 7 y 8 de mayo organizamos en la Fundación Ramón Areces con la Fundación General CSIC el Simposio Internacional 'Microbiología: transmisión'. La "transmisión" en microbiología hace referencia al proceso por el que material genético es transferido de una célula a otra, de una población a otra. Es un proceso clave para entender el origen y la evolución de los seres vivos. El objetivo de esta reunión era conocer mejor la logística de la transmisión para ser capaces de modular o suprimir algunos procesos de transmisión dañinos.
Fernando Vaquero-El impacto de las ciencias ómicas en la medicina, la nutrici...Fundación Ramón Areces
El 29 de marzo de 2016 celebramos un Simposio Internacional sobre el 'Impacto de las ciencias ómicas en la medicina, nutrición y biotecnología'. Organizado por la Fundación Ramón Areces en colaboración con la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina y BioEuroLatina, abordó cómo un mejor conocimiento del genoma humano está permitiendo notables avances hacia una medicina de precisión.
Evolution Of Bacteria
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago. Bacteria were widespread on Earth at least since the latter part of the Paleoproterozoic, roughly 1.8 billion years ago, when oxygen appeared in the atmosphere as a result of the action of the cyanobacteria. Bacteria have thus had plenty of time to adapt to their environments and to have given rise to numerous descendant forms.
Host-pathogen Interactions, Molecular Basis and Host Defense: Pathogen Detect...QIAGEN
Host–pathogen interactions are strikingly complex during infection. This slidedeck provides an overview of the molecular basis of these intricate interactions: the impact of microbiota on innate and adaptive immunity, metabolism, and insulin resistance and host defense mechanisms. Various research tools will be introduced to simplify and streamline each step of studying the host response, enabling detection of pathogens, analysis of gene expression and regulation, epigenetic modification, genotyping and signal transduction pathway activation.
Stephen A. Boyd, University Distinguished Professor, Crop and Soil Sciences; Hui Li, associate professor, Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences; Brian J. Teppen, professor, Crop and Soil Sciences; Wei Zhang, assistant professor, Plant Soil and Microbial Sciences;
genetic Resistance against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep: Association w...Ishfaq Maqbool
describes briefly about need of breeding for genetic resistance, candidate genes associated with resistance, genomic regions located on different sheep chromosomes and mechanisms by which the genes act.
Multicellular organisms have never evolved alone. Coevolution has been accomplished by means of horizontal information transition. A wide row of hierarchized interspecies interactions simultaneously transmitting biological information had evolved in the past. In the present review, we summarize the current hypothesis about possible horizontal exchange of biological information and genesis of adaptive immune system
50 Hz Frequency Magnetic Field Effects On Pseudomonas Aeruginosa And Bacillus...IOSR Journals
The effect of electromagnetic field of different intensities on Pseudomonas aeruginosa (as gram-negative
bacteria) and Bacillus subtilis (as gram-positive bacteria) was investigated to find out the effective magnetic field strength that alters the running physiological processes of every microorganism. Equal volumes of P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis suspensions were exposed for one hour at their maximum rate of active growth to the electromagnetic field (2 - 10 mT, 50 Hz). The results indicated that no remarkable differences were found in the growth of exposed P. aeruginosa. Moreover, a remarkable inhibition in the growth of exposed relative to unexposed B. subtilis cells was achieved at (4 mT) as compared with other intensities which may indicate that this magnetic field induction had a great effect on the biological activity of the cells, so more investigations were made at this magnetic field induction. Remarkable changes in the growth characteristics could be easily detected as the absorbance decreased which indicate a decrease in the cells number and consequently an
inhibition case for the bacteria. Also, the antibiotic sensitivity test of B. subtilis cells indicated either inhibition or stimulation case for the bacteria depending on the drug mode of action
Descripcion sobre algunos conceptos donde esta implicado el Resistoma, que se encuentra relacionado con los genes de resistencia que poseen diferentes organismo como las bacterias y entre otros.
Presentación en el idioma ingles
Stephen A. Boyd, University Distinguished Professor, Crop and Soil Sciences; Hui Li, associate professor, Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences; Brian J. Teppen, professor, Crop and Soil Sciences; Wei Zhang, assistant professor, Plant Soil and Microbial Sciences;
genetic Resistance against gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep: Association w...Ishfaq Maqbool
describes briefly about need of breeding for genetic resistance, candidate genes associated with resistance, genomic regions located on different sheep chromosomes and mechanisms by which the genes act.
Multicellular organisms have never evolved alone. Coevolution has been accomplished by means of horizontal information transition. A wide row of hierarchized interspecies interactions simultaneously transmitting biological information had evolved in the past. In the present review, we summarize the current hypothesis about possible horizontal exchange of biological information and genesis of adaptive immune system
50 Hz Frequency Magnetic Field Effects On Pseudomonas Aeruginosa And Bacillus...IOSR Journals
The effect of electromagnetic field of different intensities on Pseudomonas aeruginosa (as gram-negative
bacteria) and Bacillus subtilis (as gram-positive bacteria) was investigated to find out the effective magnetic field strength that alters the running physiological processes of every microorganism. Equal volumes of P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis suspensions were exposed for one hour at their maximum rate of active growth to the electromagnetic field (2 - 10 mT, 50 Hz). The results indicated that no remarkable differences were found in the growth of exposed P. aeruginosa. Moreover, a remarkable inhibition in the growth of exposed relative to unexposed B. subtilis cells was achieved at (4 mT) as compared with other intensities which may indicate that this magnetic field induction had a great effect on the biological activity of the cells, so more investigations were made at this magnetic field induction. Remarkable changes in the growth characteristics could be easily detected as the absorbance decreased which indicate a decrease in the cells number and consequently an
inhibition case for the bacteria. Also, the antibiotic sensitivity test of B. subtilis cells indicated either inhibition or stimulation case for the bacteria depending on the drug mode of action
Descripcion sobre algunos conceptos donde esta implicado el Resistoma, que se encuentra relacionado con los genes de resistencia que poseen diferentes organismo como las bacterias y entre otros.
Presentación en el idioma ingles
Bacterial antibiotic resistance is a topic that is causing increasing concern in the health community. Antibiotics are a necessary drug to help protect and heal us from pathogenic infections that our immune system is unable to successfully combat on its own. However, bacteria are very adept at utilizing evolutionary processes to develop antibiotic resistance in order to promote their own survival, reproduction and persistence. The development of antibiotic resistant bacteria is occurring at an alarming rate. Researchers are investigating the mechanisms that confer resistance on bacteria. With techniques for genomic sequencing now readily available, understanding of genetic mechanisms of resistance and evolution as a whole has been advancing rapidly. Researchers have found that bacteria are very adept at gene mutation and horizontal gene transfer. New insights regarding pleiotrophy and epistasis have been provided through these techniques. A possible result of this research will be the discovery of new antibiotic therapies. However, as the research is demonstrating, even if we develop new antibiotics, bacteria will develop resistance to them. Thus, important considerations to be taken from the research include finding ways to slow the development of resistance as we will most likely never be able to stop it entirely.
Kevin Hugins research paper.
Meriam-Webster defines endocrinology as “a branch of medicine concerned with the structure, function, and disorders of the endocrine glands.” When considering the human endocrine system, most people think of endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary, gonads, adrenals, and pancreas. No one would deny that hormones released from endocrine glands have a powerful effect on cell function throughout the human body. A relatively new field of study called Microbial Endocrinology suggests that the interactions and effects of the human endocrine system involve more organisms than just the human.
The variants of New delhiMetallo – lactamase-1: A Comparative Assessmentinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Environmental Transmission of Antimicrobial ResistancePranab Chatterjee
This is the second lecture I took for the MPH students at the Indian Institute of Public Health, Delhi, as a part of the Environmental Health module. In this lecture I introduce the students to the basics of AMR and some common modes and routes of transmission of the same through the environment.
Novel Strategies for the Delivery of Antimicrobial Compounds into Bacterial C...Alva Smith
Large literature review with research into antibiotic resistance and ways in which we can hope to overcome resistance including: membrane active peptide, phage therapy and pyocin thereapy.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}
Evolution of antibitics resistance1
1. Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance
A Report
By Ahmet VARIS, BSc
Introduction
Antibiotics were investigated for saving lives from microbial diseases. But as a result of
evolution they have to be fit to nature to stay alive. So resistance genes started to be acquired by
bacteria which have not resistant to antibiotics. Researches show that these resistance can be
caused from horizontal gene transfer or some spontaneous mutations. Nowadays databases and
artificial evolution used for estimation for future of evolution of antibiotic resistance.
How Resistance Evolution Started
The world is evolving every moment. The evolutions may result of natural effects or artificial
effects. Antibiotics which are using as drug, are a part of artificial evolution. First antibiotic had
been discovered, just before a few years than first event about antibiotic resistance (4). In 1928
penicillin was discovered by Alexander Flemings. But at 1940 which after years from penicillin
published and started to be used by as pharmaceutical drug, penicillinase was discovered by the
members of penicillin team (9). In 1994 an antibiotic, called streptomycin, used to treat
tuberculosis. But the evolution has come to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mutant version of this
bacteria have resistance to therapeutic concentration of streptomycin (8).
Question is, where these bacteria get resistant genes. The most important part of this evolution
arisen from Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT is a process that the transfer of genetic material
without reproduction). Origin of antibiotic resistance which is result of HGT may come from
non-pathogenic bacteria or some antibiotics are produced from bacteria, it is understood that the
bacteria have resistance to that antibiotics (5). These type of resistance actually had been used by
bacteria, before discovery of antibiotics. So resistant genes exist in nature.
2. Figure 1: How HGT work. Transformation: free DNA parts taken by bacteria and these make
bacterial plasmid. One of these free parts can have resistance gene. Transduction: A bacterial
virus bind to bacteria and give its genetic material which consist resistance genes and it turns to
plasmid for bacteria. Conjugation: A bacterium give another one its plasmid which already have
resistance genes.
“This situation implies the existence of three different landscapes important in the
evolution of resistance” (The role of natural environments in the evolution of resistance traits in
pathogenic bacteria, Jose L. Martinez, 2009);
First level is microbiosphere where all micro-organisms have interactions between each other.
Nature has its own antibiotics so micro-organism try to be fit against these antibiotics with
interacting to others which have resistance gene. This communication may about their live-dead
decision. And also this level is starting point of whole evolution (5).Second level is
microbiosphere where touch to human. This may be soil, activated sludge, human gut, and oral
microbiomes etc. It is important to understand relation between human and environment to show
how human pathogens acquire antibiotic resistance genes (3). Third level is treated patient. At this
level commensalism is important. Antibiotics are designed as less harmful as do not hurt the
patient body. And mostly the organisms which is inside of patient have resistant that antibiotics.
So pathogens get resistance genes from bacteria which patients have.
3. Other way of getting resistance is spontaneous mutations. This is Darwinian evolution driven by
natural selection which is that wild types are killing by antibiotics and mutant ones live. The
mutant genes pass through the next generations with vertical gene transfer. The rate for this type
of mutations is 10-8
- 10-9
. For example at E.coli it is estimated that the streptomycin resistance
frequency is 10-9
while using high concentration of antibiotics (11).
Where Are We Now
“Consequently, we face the prospect of returning to a preantibiotic era, where an increasing
number of infections can no longer be treated effectively with our current arsenal of drugs”
(Moly K. Gibson et al. Improved annotation of antibiotic resistance determinants reveals
microbial resistomes cluster by ecology, 2014)
Every antibiotic changes the fitness of the nature for that affected ones by antibiotics. This is like
a loop. Firstly antibiotic given to nature, organisms which have r genes will live and increase
their number if they are threat for you, make another antibiotic for them and here we come to first
step.
There have been a lot of researches about evolution of antibiotic resistance. Directed evolution,
genome-wide analysis, databases etc. But the r genes is not clearly understood. One of these
researches is Genome-wide analysis captures the determinants of the antibiotic cross-resistance
interaction network (2). At this experiment they try to understand how evolution of resistance or r genes
work spontaneously. So it is a directed evolution. Directed evolutions can help us to predict the
mechanisms of nature (7). At this experiment they also made experiment with different dosages of 12
antibiotics with using E.coli to realize the relation between cross-resistance and parallel evolution. As a
result of this experiment they said individual mutations and laboratory-evolved lines are 62% overlap (2).
So we can figure that out, mostly, mutations which organisms have against antibiotics are similar. Doesn’t
matter if it has natural evolved genes from an ancestor which already has r genes or it has r genes as a
result of a spontaneous mutation.
4. Another experiment which is prediction of antibiotic resistance by gene expression profiles (S.Suziki et.
al, 2014) try to understand relation between mutations. They made experiment with ten antibiotics and
antibiotic free cases. And also for every antibiotics there are 4 cases. With that process they can compare
cases for each antibiotics (1).
The result for that experiment is, in every cases there are different evolved mutations which is shown at
Figure 2.
Figure 2: this figure shows the mutational differences between cases which can be same antibiotics or
different antibiotics. For example at Cefoperazone cases, there are 4 different evolution of mutations. For
the first one synonymous mutations occur but at others there is none. And also numbers of mutations are
shown differentiate for each cases. The AF (antibiotic free) cases shows that there can be spontaneous
mutations where there was no effect of antibiotics.
5. For the control of the evolution of antibiotic resistance, clinics and companies make public databases
which can be used by everyone. The most important database is Antibiotic Resistance Gene Database
(ARDB). (6)
CONCLUSION
Antibiotic resistance is a problem which permanently increase. And the evolution will continue
until the end of the world. Because the bacteria are living organisms and our body has ten times
more bacteria than our cells. It means that the bacterial environment will continue and resistance
will not be end. But no one can see tomorrow if the differences between pathogenic and non-
pathogenic bacteria are fully investigated, the pathogenic bacteria can be destroyed. Or maybe we
will use viruses for destroying bacteria. Actually this is a war between human being and nature.
Homo sapiens try to control the nature. But nature gives its answer every time with another
evolution. The war will not be end until human give up.
REFERENCES
1. S. Suziki et al., Prediction of antibiotic resistance by gene expression analysis,
2014
2. Viktoria L., Istvan N. et al., Genome wide analysis captures the determinants of
antibiotic-resistance interaction network, 2014
3. Gibson MK, Forsberg KJ, Dantas G, Improved annotation of antibiotic resistance
determinants reveals microbial resistomes cluster by ecology, 2014
4. Tugce O, Aysegul G et al., Strength of selectionpressure is an important parameter
contributing to the complexity of antibiotic resistance evolution, 2014
5. Jose L. Martinez, The role of natural environment in the evolution of resistance
traits in pathogenic bacteria, 2009
6. McArthur AG et al.,The comprehensive antibiotic resistance databases, 2013
6. 7. Mc Orencia et al.,Predicting the emergence of antibiotic resistance by directed
evolution and structural analysis, 2001
8. Davies & Davies, The origin and evolution of antibiotic resistance, 2010
9. E. P. ABRAHAM & E. CHAIN an Enzyme from Bacteria able to Destroy
Penicillin, 1940
10.Ryan T Cirz, Jodie K Chin et al., Inhibition of mutation and combating the
evolution of antibiotic resistance, 2005
11.Anita H. Melnyk, Alex Wong and Rees Kassen, The fitness cost of antibiotic
resistance mutations, 2010