Evolution (1)
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There are four major factors that contribute to genetic variation in offspring of sexually reproducing species: mutations, crossing over, random assortment of homologous chromosomes, and random fertilization. An organism's appearance is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Adaptations are heritable traits that help organisms survive and pass their genes to offspring. Variation within a population leads to natural selection, where certain traits are selected for and allow organisms to better reproduce in their environment, leading to gradual evolutionary changes over time as new species potentially develop.
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1. Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through chromosomes and genes. Chromosomes contain genes that determine traits and are located in cell nuclei.
2. Body cells contain pairs of chromosomes while sex cells like eggs and sperm only contain half the number to allow for chromosome pairing during fertilization.
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1. Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through chromosomes and genes. Chromosomes contain genes that determine traits and are located in cell nuclei.
2. Body cells contain pairs of chromosomes while sex cells like eggs and sperm only contain half the number to allow for chromosome pairing during fertilization.
3. Traits are passed to offspring when the chromosomes from the mother and father combine during fertilization. Dominant genes mask recessive genes, determining whether traits are expressed.
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Reference
Moeller, Karla T., "Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Reptiles". Embryo Project Encyclopedia (2013-02-01). ISSN: 1940-5030
Morjan, Carrie L. 2003. “How Rapidly Can Maternal Behavior Affecting Primary Sex Ratio Evolve in a Reptile with Environmental Sex Determination ?”
Shine, Richard. 1999. “Why Is Sex Determined by Nest Temperature in Many Reptiles?” 14(5): 186–89.
Wapstra, Erik et al. 2006. “Maternal Basking Behavior Determines Offspring Sex in a Viviparous Reptile.” : 230–32.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in evolutionary theory, including:
- The history of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek and medieval views to modern theories proposed by Darwin and Spencer.
- Mechanisms of evolution like natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow that can lead to changes in allele frequencies within populations.
- Other evolutionary processes such as adaptation, coevolution, speciation and extinction that shape the diversity of life over time.
- The role of heredity, variation and inheritance in passing traits between generations and maintaining genetic variation within populations.
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1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
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Mutations and genetic recombination introduce genetic variation within populations. Natural selection acts on this variation, favoring traits that increase reproductive success. Over generations, this leads to adaptation and evolution of populations as allele frequencies change. Genetic drift also causes random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small, isolated populations. Gene flow moves alleles between populations through migration.
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Sexual reproduction involves two parents, meiosis, and results in genetically diverse offspring due to crossing over and independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis. Asexual reproduction involves one parent, mitosis, and produces identical offspring, but allows organisms to reproduce in less favorable environments with fewer variations among offspring. Bacteria can reproduce asexually through binary fission or exchange genetic material through conjugation, a form of horizontal gene transfer.
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Brothers and sisters are different because they have different sets of genes. The male and female sex cells are called sperm and egg. Genetic information is stored in DNA located in the nuclei of cells. Fertilization is the meeting and fusion of sperm and egg during sexual reproduction. This allows for the genetic information from both the male and female parents to combine and be passed on to offspring.
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Sexual reproduction involves two parents and meiosis, resulting in variation among offspring through processes like crossing over and nondisjunction, allowing for more natural selection. Asexual reproduction involves one parent and mitosis, producing identical offspring with less variation and natural selection, but allows reproduction in environments with few organisms. Bacteria can exchange DNA through conjugation, a form of horizontal gene transfer that is a type of sexual reproduction.
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Twin study
Twin studies compare the similarity of identical twins and fraternal twins to determine the relative genetic and environmental influences on traits. Identical twins share all of their genes while fraternal twins share about half, so greater similarity between identical twins suggests a genetic influence. A twin study compares concordance rates, or how often both twins share a characteristic, between identical and fraternal twins to suggest if a trait is genetically caused. While useful, twin studies have limitations like assuming equal environments and interactions between only genes and environment rather than other factors.
Non mendelianinheritance-160712090730
This document discusses several forms of non-Mendelian inheritance including incomplete dominance where one allele is not completely dominant, co-dominance where both parental traits appear together in offspring, multiple alleles where more than two alleles code for a characteristic, maternal and paternal effects where the parent's environment or genotype influences the offspring's phenotype, epigenetic inheritance involving modification to genes or chromosomes early in development, and gene conversion where a piece of DNA is transferred between DNA helices altering one sequence.
26 1 genetics how and why
1. Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through chromosomes and genes. Chromosomes contain genes that determine traits and are located in cell nuclei.
2. Body cells contain pairs of chromosomes while sex cells like eggs and sperm only contain half the number to allow for chromosome pairing during fertilization.
3. Traits are passed to offspring when the chromosomes from the sperm and egg join during fertilization. Dominant genes mask recessive genes, determining whether traits are expressed.
26 1 genetics, how and why
1. Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through chromosomes and genes. Chromosomes contain genes that determine traits and are located in cell nuclei.
2. Body cells contain pairs of chromosomes while sex cells like eggs and sperm only contain half the number to allow for chromosome pairing during fertilization.
3. Traits are passed to offspring when the chromosomes from the mother and father combine during fertilization. Dominant genes mask recessive genes, determining whether traits are expressed.
Environmental Control Sex Determination
Reference
Moeller, Karla T., "Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Reptiles". Embryo Project Encyclopedia (2013-02-01). ISSN: 1940-5030
Morjan, Carrie L. 2003. “How Rapidly Can Maternal Behavior Affecting Primary Sex Ratio Evolve in a Reptile with Environmental Sex Determination ?”
Shine, Richard. 1999. “Why Is Sex Determined by Nest Temperature in Many Reptiles?” 14(5): 186–89.
Wapstra, Erik et al. 2006. “Maternal Basking Behavior Determines Offspring Sex in a Viviparous Reptile.” : 230–32.
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Heredity refers to the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Variation means individuals have slight differences even if they belong to the same species. Genetics is the science of heredity and variation. During reproduction and cell division, small inaccuracies in DNA copying can lead to minor variations between individuals. However, not all variations provide equal chances of adaptation, as some variations may provide individuals with advantages depending on the environment. Mendel's experiments with pea plants showed that traits can be dominant or recessive, and are inherited independently. DNA contains the genetic information passed down from parents. In humans, sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes. Fossils provide evidence for evolution by showing extinct organisms and transitional forms between
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This chapter discusses heredity and evolution. It covers Mendel's principles of inheritance including segregation and independent assortment. Examples of Mendelian traits in humans like cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia are provided. Non-Mendelian inheritance patterns and mitochondrial inheritance are also discussed. The chapter then explores modern evolutionary theory including the definition of evolution, factors that produce variation, and how natural selection acts on variation.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in evolutionary theory, including:
- The history of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek and medieval views to modern theories proposed by Darwin and Spencer.
- Mechanisms of evolution like natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow that can lead to changes in allele frequencies within populations.
- Other evolutionary processes such as adaptation, coevolution, speciation and extinction that shape the diversity of life over time.
- The role of heredity, variation and inheritance in passing traits between generations and maintaining genetic variation within populations.
Reproduction 101110032348-phpapp02
This document discusses reproduction in various forms of life. It describes asexual reproduction, which does not involve sex cells and occurs in many lower organisms through fission, fragmentation, budding, and other means. Sexual reproduction is also discussed, which involves the union of sperm and egg to create genetic variation in offspring. Examples of both asexual and sexual reproduction are provided for plants, fungi, and other organisms. The stages of sexual reproduction in flowering plants are outlined, from gamete formation through pollination, fertilization, fruit and seed development, and seed germination.
Genetics, mendelian laws
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment states that allele pairs separate independently during gamete formation, meaning traits are transmitted independently of one another. Mendel demonstrated this through dihybrid crosses in pea plants, which resulted in a 9:3:3:1 ratio of traits in the offspring. His work established that inheritance follows simple probabilistic rules and discrete factors (genes) are passed from parents to offspring according to the laws of chance.
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Genetic variation affects plants, animals, and humans through genetic disorders and traits. Meiosis and crossing over during prophase I contribute to genetic variation. Approximately 1-2% of humans have red hair due to variations on chromosome 16 that also alter pain sensitivity. Down's syndrome, Patau syndrome, and Edward's syndrome are some genetic disorders identified through amniocentesis and amniotic fluid testing that often have distinctive physical characteristics.
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The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
Natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow
Mutations and genetic recombination introduce genetic variation within populations. Natural selection acts on this variation, favoring traits that increase reproductive success. Over generations, this leads to adaptation and evolution of populations as allele frequencies change. Genetic drift also causes random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small, isolated populations. Gene flow moves alleles between populations through migration.
Chapter 7 notes
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes in cells from diploid to haploid, forming four haploid gametes from one diploid cell. This occurs through the processes of independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization, which contribute to genetic variation and allow for evolution. Meiosis produces either sperm cells in males through spermatogenesis or egg cells in females through oogenesis, where the cytoplasm unequally divides. Sexual reproduction then involves the union of haploid gametes from two parents to form a diploid zygote, resulting in offspring that are genetically different from the parents.
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This is imagery derived from aerial lidar. It shows the historically and culturally significant earth mounds build between 1000-1300 AD. Also visible is the Crawfish River.
Frases generacion
El documento trata sobre los aspectos técnicos del diseño y construcción de canales de conducción de agua. Explica los diferentes tipos de canales, como calcular sus dimensiones, pendientes y velocidades máximas, y los materiales apropiados para sus revestimientos. También cubre temas como túneles, aliviaderos, acueductos y otras obras especiales relacionadas con la conducción de agua.
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Meiosis, crossing over during meiosis, and random fertilization all contribute to genetic variation among offspring. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes randomly assort and cross over, mixing the genetic material from the parents in new combinations. Then, when millions of sperm cells fertilize millions of eggs randomly, virtually every possible combination of parental genetic material can occur, leading to hugely diverse offspring. This genetic variation is important for evolution and adaptation to the environment.
Genetics varaiation.1
Genetic variation occurs both within and among populations and is brought about by mutation, recombination, migration, and genetic drift. There are four main types of genetic variation: mutation, genetic recombination, migration, and genetic drift. Genetic variation is important as it allows individuals and populations to adapt to their environments. It plays a key role in health and pharmacology, for example in gene therapy which aims to treat diseases by replacing, inactivating, or introducing new genes.
Neodarwinism or synthetic theory of evolution
Neo-Darwinism is a modified version of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It incorporates genetic variation as the raw material for evolution. Genetic variation arises from sources like mutations, recombination, and chromosomal changes. Natural selection leads to differential reproduction of adaptive variants, increasing their frequency over generations. Reproductive isolation maintains distinctiveness between species. According to Neo-Darwinism, evolution occurs through the appearance of genetic variation, its spread through populations by natural selection, and reproductive isolation leading to speciation.
Genetic variation
Genetic variation refers to differences in genes between individuals of a population. It arises due to mutations, recombination during meiosis, gene flow between populations, and environmental factors. Genetic variation is important for evolution and survival of species as it provides raw materials for natural selection. While some genetic variations are harmful, others can provide benefits like disease resistance. Variations in genes involved in drug metabolism can impact individual responses to medications. Understanding genetic diversity is important for personalized medicine and drug development.
Factors Affecting Allele Changes in Frequency: Mutation
Mutation, non-random mating, assortative mating, and natural selection can all affect allele changes in frequency in a population.
Mutation is the permanent alteration of DNA sequences that can occur due to errors during DNA replication or damage. It can result in changes to gene function. Non-random mating occurs when individuals select mates non-randomly, altering gene frequencies. Assortative mating is when individuals mate with others of similar phenotypes more than expected by chance, which can increase genetic relatedness. Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals based on phenotype, driving changes in allele frequencies over generations.
Genetic variation and its role in health and pharmacology
ppt comprising how the variation in our genes(variability from races to races) alters our health and disease status
Evolution Of Populations
Populations evolve over time through natural selection and changes in gene frequencies. Individuals with traits that increase survival and reproductive success are more likely to pass on their genes to subsequent generations. For example, insect populations can evolve resistance to insecticides as individuals with resistant target sites are more likely to survive and pass on that resistant trait. Variation within populations, driven by factors like mutation and recombination, provides the raw material for natural selection to act upon as environments change over time.
Plant Breeding22222 - 2.pptx hggffffffffffff
This document discusses types of variation in plants, including their origin and scale. It covers genetic and environmental variation, as well as qualitative and quantitative traits. Genetic variation arises from processes like recombination, chromosome modifications, and mutations. Qualitative traits are discrete while quantitative traits exhibit continuous variation controlled by multiple genes. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.
Mutation.pptx
This document discusses mutations, which are sudden changes in genetic material or organism characteristics. Mutations can be spontaneous or induced by mutagens like radiation or chemicals. There are many types of mutations classified by size, origin, direction of change, and other factors. Spontaneous mutations occur naturally while induced mutations are caused by external factors. Mutations have led to the development of useful traits in crop plants through breeding, like disease resistance, increased yields, and altered growth properties. However, most mutations are deleterious or recessive and have no practical value.
Genetics and Evolution_ A detailed and informative guide for you.docx
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21. Mutation Breeding in crop improvement
Mutation breeding in crop improvement can utilize both spontaneous and induced mutations. Induced mutations are caused by physical mutagens like radiation (x-rays, gamma rays, UV light) or chemical mutagens. Mutation rates can vary between genes and induced mutations occur more frequently than spontaneous mutations. Mutation breeding is useful for crop improvement by generating genetic variation for selection of desirable traits.
Extra nuclear inheritance
Cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance involves the transmission of traits controlled by genes located outside the cell nucleus, such as in mitochondria or chloroplasts. This form of inheritance does not follow Mendel's laws and instead is maternally inherited, with traits expressed based on the phenotype of the female parent. Examples discussed in the document include mitochondrial inheritance in humans, cytoplasmic factors influencing disease susceptibility in mice, and chloroplast genes controlling leaf color in plants.
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ORIGIN OF SPECIES.pptx
This document discusses macroevolution and microevolution. Microevolution involves changes in allele frequencies within a population over a short time due to factors like mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and natural selection. These small changes can accumulate over long periods to result in macroevolution, where new species, genera, and higher taxonomic groups emerge due to reproductive isolation and genetic divergence between populations. Macroevolution can occur through both allopatric speciation, where populations are geographically isolated, or sympatric speciation within overlapping populations.
Evolution
This document provides an overview of key concepts in evolutionary theory, including heredity, variation, mechanisms of evolution, and outcomes of evolution. It discusses how evolution occurs through genetic changes in populations over generations, brought about by various mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Mutation, sex, and recombination also introduce genetic variation in organisms that can then be acted upon by evolutionary forces. The document outlines processes like adaptation, coevolution, speciation, and extinction that are results of evolutionary change over time.
Types of mutation
This document discusses mutations, which are alterations in an organism's DNA sequence. There are several types of mutations, including base substitutions, deletions, and insertions. Mutations can occur due to errors during DNA replication or repair. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial for evolution. The effects of mutations depend on factors like how many DNA bases are affected. Mutation rates vary within and between genomes.
Types of mutation
This document discusses mutations, which are alterations in an organism's DNA sequence. There are several types of mutations, including base substitutions, deletions, and insertions. Mutations can occur due to errors during DNA replication or repair. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial for evolution. Mutations may affect single bases or entire chromosomes. They can originate in somatic or germ cells. Certain DNA regions called hotspots are especially prone to mutations. The effects of mutations range from neutral to strongly beneficial or deleterious, depending on factors like how many base pairs are altered.
Variation
This document discusses genetic and non-genetic sources of variation within populations. It defines variation and describes the main types as genotypic and phenotypic. The key causes of genetic variation are mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, sexual reproduction and recombination during meiosis. Non-genetic sources include environmental factors, age, social influences, habitat, density and trauma. Variation is important for evolution as it provides genetic diversity for natural selection to act upon, allowing populations to adapt to changing environments over time.
EVOLUTION AND MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
It states that the present day complex plants and animals have evolved from earlier simpler forms of life by gradual changes. SEQUENTIAL EVOLUTION ,DIVERGENT EVOLUTION, Theories of evolution.
Evolution cheat sheet
This document provides a summary of key biology terms and concepts related to evolution, including:
- Definitions of important terms like ancestor, descent, DNA, fossils, natural selection, and speciation.
- A description of the process of natural selection, including how random genetic variations, interaction with the environment, and differential reproductive success can lead to adaptation over time.
- A phylogenetic tree showing the evolutionary relationships between major primate groups like humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons, and old and new world monkeys.
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More from Paula Mills
12.2
Here is a semi-log plot of the data with an exponential trendline:
The equation of the trendline is:
y = 12456e-0.4693x
Taking the natural log of both sides:
ln(y) = ln(12456) - 0.4693x
The slope is -0.4693
Using the equation:
t1/2 = 0.693/λ
λ = 0.4693
t1/2 = 0.693/0.4693 = 1.5
Therefore, the half-life of the isotope is 1.5 intervals, or 1.5 x 30 s = 45 seconds.
12.1
This document discusses the photoelectric effect and how it relates to classical and quantum theories of light. It begins by describing early observations of the photoelectric effect and how it works. It then outlines several predictions of classical theory that did not match experimental observations, such as intensity of light not affecting electron kinetic energy. Einstein's explanation using a quantum theory approach is then presented, introducing the concept of photons. Several actual observations from experiments are then matched to explanations using quantum theory. The document concludes by discussing de Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves and how particles can behave as waves.
11.2
This document discusses electromagnetic induction and how it is used to generate alternating current (AC) in generators. It explains that rotating coils within a magnetic field generate an electromotive force (EMF) that produces a current. The current flows back and forth as the coils rotate, making it an alternating current. It describes the key components of a basic AC generator, including the coil, slip rings, and brushes. The output is a sinusoidal waveform where the current is maximum when the coil's motion cuts the most magnetic field lines per unit time. It also discusses how transformers are used to change AC voltages by using the principle of electromagnetic induction.
8.2 thermal energy transfer
There are three main forms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between particles in direct contact. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming by trapping more heat in the lower atmosphere. The impacts of climate change include rising temperatures, changes to climate and weather patterns, rising sea levels, and disruption of natural ecosystems.
8.1 energy sources
The document discusses various renewable and non-renewable energy sources. It provides information on how different energy sources work, including fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, as well as renewable sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and nuclear. It discusses the basic processes of energy conversion, emissions, costs and environmental impacts of each energy source. Sankey diagrams are also introduced to illustrate energy transfers from different fuel sources.
Stellar quantities 2018
The energy falling on a 1 m^2 surface on Earth in a year is:
Lsun x π x 1 x (1 year) = 3.90x1026 W x π x 1 x (3600 s/hr x 24 hr/day x 365.25 day/year) = 1.36x1017 J
Where Lsun is the luminosity of the Sun (3.90x1026 W) and 1 year is converted to seconds.
D3
The Big Bang model describes the origin and evolution of our universe. It postulates that approximately 13.8 billion years ago, the entire observable universe was only a few millimeters in size and extremely hot and dense. The universe has been expanding and cooling ever since. Evidence for the Big Bang includes the expansion of the universe, the cosmic microwave background radiation, and the relative abundance of light elements like hydrogen and helium.
7.3 structure of matter
Ernst Rutherford conducted an experiment where he fired alpha particles at a thin gold foil. Most passed straight through but some were scattered back at wide angles. This was unexpected and led Rutherford to propose that atoms have a small, dense nucleus containing positive charge. Later, models showed this could explain the scattering if alpha particles passed close enough to the nucleus to be strongly repelled by its positive charge. This nuclear model revolutionized understanding of atomic structure.
7.2 nuclear reactions
- Nuclear fission involves splitting large nuclei like uranium, releasing energy. Fusion joins light nuclei like hydrogen, also releasing energy.
- Fission is used in nuclear power plants and bombs. Fusion powers stars and could be an energy source on Earth if containment and high temperature issues are solved.
- The binding energy curve shows that mid-sized nuclei are most stable, and that fission and fusion involving less stable nuclei release energy.
7.1 Atomic, nuclear and particle physics
This document discusses atomic, nuclear and particle physics concepts including:
- Atomic energy levels and line spectra which provide evidence that electrons can only have certain discrete energy values within an atom.
- The Bohr model of the atom which assumed quantized electron energy levels and explained hydrogen atom spectra.
- Nuclear structure including mass number, nucleons, atomic number, isotopes, and interactions within the nucleus.
- Three types of nuclear radiation - alpha, beta, and gamma rays - and how they differ in their ionizing properties and penetration abilities due to their mass and charge.
- Nuclear stability and how heavier nuclei require more neutrons to counter the repulsive force between protons.
- Two
11.3
This document defines capacitance as the charge per unit voltage that a device can maintain. It describes a capacitor as a device that can store charge, consisting of two parallel plates separated by a medium like air, vacuum, or dielectric. It provides the equations for capacitance and discusses how capacitors can be arranged in series or parallel circuits. It also describes how capacitors can be used to store energy and discusses dielectrics and their effect on capacitance. Examples are given of calculating charge, capacitance, and capacitor arrangements in circuits.
11.1
This document discusses electromagnetic induction and Faraday's law of induction. It explains that an electromotive force (emf) is induced in a conductor when it moves through a magnetic field. The direction of the induced current is determined by Lenz's law, which states that the induced emf will oppose the change in magnetic flux that creates it. Faraday's law quantifies the relationship between the induced emf and the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the conductor.
10.2 fields at work 2017
Here are the steps to solve these problems:
1) Given: Distance above earth's surface = 1000km
Use equation: V = -GM/R
= - (6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2)(5.98x1024 kg)(1000km)
= -6.3x1010 J/kg
2) Given: ∆V = Vf - Vi = -60 - (-20) MJ/kg = -40 MJ/kg
∆E = mg∆h = m∆V
∆V = ∆E/m = -40x106 J/kg / 50 kg = -800 m/s
3)
10.1 describing fields 2017
1) Gravitational and electric fields can be described by their field strength, which is defined as the force exerted per unit mass or charge.
2) Coulomb's law and Newton's law of gravitation describe the relationship between field strength and distance from the source of the field. Field strength decreases with the inverse square of the distance.
3) Electric and gravitational potential are scalar quantities that represent the potential energy per unit mass or charge. Potential increases as distance from the source decreases. Equipotential lines represent regions of constant potential.
5.1 electric fields
Electric fields arise from electric charges and can be represented by electric field lines. A positive test charge experiences a force when placed in an electric field, allowing the field strength to be calculated. The field is strongest closest to the charged object and decreases with distance. Materials are classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors based on how easily their electrons can move. Coulomb's law defines the force between two point charges as directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
5.2 heating effect of currents
The document discusses electricity and magnetism, specifically resistance and heating effects of currents. It explains that resistance depends on the material and structure of a conductor, with tungsten filament lamps having high resistance and copper wires having low resistance. It also covers Ohm's law, defining resistance as the ratio of potential difference to current, and how resistors, circuits, and resistor combinations work based on this relationship. Kirchhoff's laws for analyzing electric circuits are also summarized.
5.4 magnetic effects of currents
This document discusses magnetic fields created by electric currents. It begins by introducing magnetic fields and magnets. It then explains that a current-carrying wire creates a circular magnetic field, as shown by iron filings. The direction of the field depends on the current direction. A flat coil and solenoid also produce magnetic fields, with the solenoid's field resembling that of a bar magnet. Current-carrying wires and charged particles experience forces in magnetic fields according to Fleming's left-hand rule. Parallel wires with the same/opposite currents attract/repel each other due to their magnetic fields. The ampere is defined based on the force between parallel current-carrying wires. Magnetic field strength B is directly
5.3 electric cells
1. Batteries work by using a chemical reaction to create a difference in electrolytic potential between two terminals placed in an electrolyte. This potential difference causes ions to flow from one terminal to the other.
2. Primary cells cannot be recharged, while secondary cells can be recharged by applying an external voltage to reverse the chemical reaction.
3. The electromotive force (EMF) of a source is the electrical potential energy, measured in volts, that is transferred to each coulomb of charge passing through the source. Common examples of sources that provide EMF include dry cells, dynamos, and solar cells.
4.4
The document discusses wave behavior and reflection and refraction of waves. It provides examples of reflection at fixed and free boundaries and how this causes inversion or no inversion of pulses. It introduces the law of reflection where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is discussed where the speed and wavelength change upon entering a new medium. Snell's law is derived relating the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction to the refractive indices of the media. Total internal reflection at the critical angle is also mentioned.
4.5
Standing waves are formed when two waves of equal amplitude and wavelength traveling in opposite directions interfere. A standing wave has points called nodes where the disturbance is always zero, and amplitudes called antinodes. When the frequency is increased, different standing wave patterns called harmonics are formed. The fundamental harmonic has a half wavelength, and higher harmonics have wavelengths that are fractions of the total length. Standing waves can also be produced in open and closed pipes, with the harmonic frequencies following specific patterns in each case.
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Evolution (1)
- 1. Evolution
- 2. There are four major factors which contribute to variation among offspring in sexually reproducing species. 1. Mutations Spontaneous and random changes to sequences of bases in the DNA 2. Crossing Over Enzymes snip and swap sections of DNA from non-sister chromatids 3. Random assortment Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart in a random manner resulting in a mix of maternal and paternal characteristics 4. Random fertilisation Random nature of producing eggs and sperm contributes to fertilisation
- 3. The appearance of an organism is influenced by both environmental and genetic factors Adaptations are those structural, behavioural or physiological features that aid an organism survival. Genetically controlled characteristics can be passed from parent to offspring and increase the chances of an organism reaching reproductive age.
- 4. Variation in a population is followed by (natural) selection in nature, which is then followed by reproduction and this may lead to gradual changes in the genes in the population, leading to evolution.
- 5. The features which are selected, ensure that the organism is well suited or adapted to its environment and are called adaptations Evolution is the gradual change that occurs within a species and the development of a new species over time