This document summarizes a literature review on evaluation studies of cross-cultural training from 1988 to 2000. It finds that some studies confirm the effect of cross-cultural training on skills, adjustment, and performance, while others doubt the quality of evidence. In general, the effectiveness of different training methods remains unclear. Most evaluated U.S. student trainees using lectures and discussions. Training duration varied from half a day to 8 months. Expected outcomes included knowledge, behavior, attitudes, adjustment, and performance. Critical issues in the studies included lack of control groups and long-term evaluation.

1. Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­cultural
Training
A Review of the Literature From 1988 to 2000
Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra & Mu Tong, Zhejiang University
Hangzhou, March 2011

2. Evaluation Studies on Cultural Awareness Training
Black and Mendenhall
(1990) Deshpande and Viswesvaran
(1992)
Bhawuk and Brislin
(2000)
Bhagat and Prien Kealey and Protheroe
(1996) (1996)
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

3. Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology
14
years
in
Germany
7
years
in
China
Dipl.-Psych., Technical University of Braunschweig
Organizational Psychology and Human Resource Management
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
Dr. Phil., University of Regensburg
Intercultural Psychology and Strategic Management
Executive Education, INSEAD
HR Management in Asia
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
3

4. Learning Value Chain and the Benefits of its Measurements
Key Benefits of Evaluation
Satisfy client needs
Justifying budgets
Improve program designs Level Key Questions
and processes
Input and What is the number of participants, hours,
0 Indicators and programs and what are the costs?
Enhance the transfer of learning
Was the learning relevant, important,
Reaction and useful, and helpful to participants in the job
1
Enhance the respect and credibility of LTD Planned Action environment? Did the participants plan to
use the content in the program?
staff Did participants increase or enhance
Learning and
2 Confidence knowledge, skills, or perceptions and
have confidence to use them?
Increase support from line managers
What did the participants do differently in
Application & the job context? Was the program
3 Implementation implemented effectively? What changes
Strengthen relationship with key executive were made on the job?
and administrators Impact and What are the consequences of the
4 Consequences application in terms of output, quality,
cost, time, and satisfaction?
Set priorities for learning and development
Did the monetary benefits of the learning
5 ROI program exceed the investment in the
program?
Sources: Elkele & Philips (2007). The Chief Learning Officer.
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
4

5. Key Benefits of Measurement and Evaluation
• Sa#sfy
client
needs • Enhance
the
respect
and
credibility
• Jus#fying
budgets of
LTD
staff
• Improve
program
designs
and
• Increase
support
from
managers
processes • Strengthen
rela#onship
with
key
• Enhance
the
transfer
of
learning execu#ve
and
administrators
• Eliminate
of
expand • Set
priori#es
for
learning
and
208 The Chief Learning Officer
development
The ROI Process
Tabulate
Costs
Data Collection Of Solution
Evaluation LEVEL 1:
Data Analysis Reporting
REACTION, LEVEL 3:
Planning SATISFACTION, AND APPLICATION/
PLANNED ACTIONS IMPLEMENTATION
Develop Develop Generate
Collect Data Collect Data Convert Data Calculate
Objectives Evaluation Isolate the Impact
During Solution After Solution to Monetary the Return On
of Plans and Effects Study
Implementation Implementation Value Investment
Solution(s) Baseline Data
LEVEL 4: LEVEL 5: ROI
LEVEL 2:
LEARNING BUSINESS IMPACT
Identify
Intangible
Measures
INTANGIBLE BENEFITS
Figure 8-4. ROI methodology. (Source: Phillips, 2003.
Used with permission.)
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
5

6. Tools and methods in learning evaluation
Collecting Data Isolating the Effects of Learning Converting Data to Monetary Values
• Surveys • Control group • Output data is converted to profit
contribution or cost savings
• Questionnaires • Pre-post measurements
• Tests • The cot quality is calculated
• Trend lines and forecasting
• On-the-job observation • Wages and benefits for the used of
• Participants or managers time value
• Interviews
• Focus groups • Other experts • Historical cost and current used
• Action plan and program assignments • Opportunity cost
• Performance contracts • External database
• Business performance monitoring • Participant estimation from different
groups
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
6

7. When to Use the Training: International Assignment
10%
-­‐
50%
of
expatriates
returning
early
from
their
assignment.
Expatriates’
difficulAes
are
costly
for
MNCs,
ranging
from
$250,000
to
$1
million.
(Eschbach
et
al.,
2001)
• Internal marketing to motivate
employee for international assignment
Marketing
Reintegration Selection
• Return planing and International
• Developing expatriate-profiles
reintegration seminar Assignment and conducting selection
Supporting Preparation
• Conceptualization of an escorting • Preparation of the expatriates and
system during the assignment their families (e.g. cultural
(e.g. coaching, mentoring, etc.) awareness training, etc.)
Different
types
of
cultural
awareness
training
is
helpful
for
each
stage
of
the
circle
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
7

8. Generic Design of Cross Cultural Awareness Training
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
Culture & Management:
Communication … on the Way
Working in International
Across Cultures to Cross-Cultural Synergy
Environments
Break
My understanding of others: Role Play: Personal Charter
Self and other perception “First Meeting” & Learning Plan
Lunch
Cultural Encounter Case Study:
Situations Cross-cultural Leadership
Break
Case and Role Play:
Critical Situations
Conflict Management and Short Lecture & Discussion
in Working Places
Team Building
Dinner Learning in Action
Joint Dinner
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
8

9. How Effective is a Cross-Cultural Awareness Training
in Developing Intercultural Competence?
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
9

10. Summary of the Evaluation Studies on Awareness Training
• Some evaluation confirms the effect of CCT on trainees’
cross-cultural skill, adjustment, and performance.
• Others have doubts regarding the quality of these studies
whether CCT effectiveness has been demonstrated.
• Don’t establish a “link” between training and the measured
effect on a dependent variable.
• The effectiveness of CCT in these studies was regarded as
too positive in previous reviews.
• In general, it remains unclear which method of CCT is overall
most effective and which methods are most effective in
specific contingencies.
• The result for the same studies does not always correspond
in different reviews due to the different perspectives taken by
the reviewers.
Littrell & Salas, 2005
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

11. Domain of the Evaluation Study
 English language vs. Multiple languages:
Eglish,French,German,
Italian,and Spanish.
 Specific domains vs. Wide variety of disciplines:
Management, military studies,
human resource management,
cross-cultural psychology,
intercultural relation,
immigrant studies,
education, anthropology,
political science and diplomacy.
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

12. Findings
Participants
✓ U.S. trainees were evaluated most.
✓ Over half of the treatment groups
were students.
✓ Lack of manager subjects. Methods
✓ Lectures, culture assimilators and class
discussions were the most often used.
✓ Training was composed of three or
more methods .
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

13. Training Methods Used in the Evaluation Studies
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

14. Findings
Timing
✓ The training took place either prior to,
during, or independently of a sojourn
in another country.
✓ The duration of the training varied
from1/2 to 50 hours over a period of
time ranging from 1 day to 8 months.
Focus
✓ Most training focus on a specific culture.
✓ Others were culture general or a
combination.
✓ Japanese, U.S. and Canadian cultures
were the most common focus.
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

15. Expected Results of Awareness Training
The ability to make isomorphic attributions
Knowledge awareness of cultural differences
Problem-solving ability, the ability to deal with cross-culture
Behavior misunderstandings, display of cultural sensitivity
Cultural interest, positive attitude toward members of other
Attitude cultures, trainee ethnocentrism.
Perceived well-being, health and safety concerns, adjusted to a
Adjustment foreign culture, perceived control of the environment.
Academic achievement,
Performance contribution to company goal.
Satisfaction Trainee satisfaction
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

16. Cross-Cultural Training Effectiveness
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

17. Some Critical Issues of the Current Evaluation Studies
• Control Groups
• Pre- and Post-Training Test
• Randomly Assign
• Long-term vs. Short Term Effects
• Different Measurement Methods
• Placebo and Hawthorne Effects
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

18. International Project References in the Research Areas of
Culture Diversity, Talent Development, and Strategic Change
• Building Global Competence for Asian Leaders
• Applying Social Medias (Web 2.0) in Learning & Development.
• International Employability: Development of Intercultural 14
years
in
Germany
Competence of German and Chinese Young Professionals.
• Cross-Cultural Learning Behavior:
Effectiveness of the Western Technology Transfer and Learning
Approaches in China.
• Comparative Studies of Chinese-Indonesian Intercultural 8
years
in
China
Competence and Sensitivity.
• Dynamic Decision Making in Chinese and Multinational Teams.
• Intercultural Perspectives of International Post-Merger
Integration in Europe.
Born
and
grew
up
• Intercultural Synergy in Professional Team. in
Indonesia
• Complex Problem Solving in Small Groups.
• ...
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training
18

19. Conclusions and Implications
✦ Quantitative and Qualitative
✦ Time Span
✦ Wintry Doctrine
✦ Low Motivation
✦ Moderators
✦ The Paucity of theory
✦ Cooperation and Resistance
Evaluation
Studies
of
Cross-­‐Cultural
Training

20. Thank
You
Contact us via …
Mail: hora_t@mac.com
Follow: twitter@htjitra
Website: http://horatjitra.com
Based on: LISA N. LITTRELL, EDUARDO SALAS:
A Review of Cross-Cultural Training: Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs. Zhejiang
University,
Hangzhou
(China)
Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 2005. p305-334