This document provides an overview of ethnography and visual anthropology. It defines ethnography as the systematic study and documentation of human activities through immersion in the environment being studied and observation. Key features of ethnography include becoming embroiled in the setting, having a bottom-up perspective, being present physically in the field, and acknowledging the researcher's own reflexivity. Ethnography involves skills like observation and interviewing to understand people's perspectives. It discusses ethics, types of field research, and provides guidance on how to conduct ethnographic fieldwork and analysis.

1. ETHNOGRAPHY &
VISUAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
Maya Ninova, PhD
Qualitative researcher/Independent consultant
maya.ninova@gmail.com

2. KEY THEMES
 What is ethnography?
 Ethnographic principles/features
 Usage of ethnography
 Ethnographic skills
 Access and types of sites
 How to do it?
 Advantages/disadvantages
 Ethics
 Types of ethnography
 Visual anthropology
 Case studies

3. WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?
Ethnos: “nation, folk, people” and Grapho “I write”
= Ethnography: describing and understaning another way of life from the
native point of view (Neuman, 2007)

4. ETHNOGRAPHIC ROOTS
Anthropology: Study of cultures, relationships, humans and
their environment
Anthropologists: live within the community for an extended
period of time: interacting, studying, participating and
researching
Result: The researcher goes back home with paper/book on the
culture of that community
The application of anthropological techniques is ethnography.
Ethnography literally means the writing or report of
anthropological study.

5. WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?
The systematic study and documentation of human activity without
imposing a prior interpretation on it via immersion in the environment of it
and observation of the practices/tasks that constitute it
Defined as:
- method of observing human interactions in social settings and activities
(Burke & Kirk,2001)
- also: a descriptive work produced from such research
Rather than studying the people from the outside, you learn from people
from the inside

6. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
 The ethnographer become embroiled in the setting (Atkinson, 1990).
- The combination of participative and observational approaches lies at the
center of the ethnographic initiative.
“the researcher participating, overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an
extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and/or
asking questions through informal and formal interviews, collecting documents and
artifacts – in fact, gathering whatever data are available to throw light on the issues
that are the emerging focus of inquiry” (Hammersley and Atkinson ,1995, p.3)
- Center stage to the human factors and the sense which people make of
the world. The role of the ethnographer is to observe, document, and
analyze these practices, to present them in a new light.

7. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
 The ethnographic study is grounded in the context.
-It is infused with local knowledge of particular and specific kind.
- This refers to the fact that ethnography situates people and phenomena
in the context of their natural habitat rather than isolates them.
- Only in the context in which they naturally occur can behavior and
artifacts be understood.

8. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
 Bottom-up perspective.
- Ethnography requires an inductive examination of facts, long-term
engagement or “immersion” in the field and a reflexive stand in order to
understand the “other” from the point of view of the other.
- It is expected from the ethnographer to enter the field without any
preconceived ideas and to stay open to new data;

9. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
 “Being there”.
- He or she depends on personal contact with informants and therefore
needs to be present “physically” in the specific “field”, the natural
environment of the other that is limited in time and space.
- This sharing of time and place with informants is referred to as “being
there”. It allows the researcher to experience what is to be a member of
the group or society studied.

10. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
 Reflexivity
- Acknowledgment of the own reflexivity as a researcher is needed since
the fieldworker is conceived as a research instrument (Sherry, 1991).
- Such a reflexive stand furthermore entails that the “researcher needs to
be clear about hisher objectives and the limitations he or she is working
under” (Hirsch & Gellner, 2001, p.8).
-Possibility of an ethnographer being entirely objective is rejected
- Ethnographers include their personal experiences in their findings

11. ETHNOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES
Holism
- focus on relations among activities and not a single tasks or single
isolated individuals
- everything is connected to everything else
Inductive
- started without a single hypothesis
Study people in their natural habitat / home, office, school, library,
hospital, community, etc.
Native`s point of view
- how people see their own world
- opportunity to engage with people/customers

12. USAGE OF ETHNOGRAPHY
Anthropology
Social psychology
Sociology
Marketing
Consumer research
Design research

13. SOME OF THE NEW “ETHNOGRAPHIC” METHODS IN
BUSINESS AND DESIGN
 “Shadowing”
 “Consumer ethnography”
 “Field observation”
 “ Contextual inquiry”
 “ Contextual user research”
 “ Observational research”
 “ User-centered research”
 “New product ethnography”
 “Storytelling”

14. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - OBSERVING
Observation is a flexible technique, complementing most other
data gathering techniques (McMurray, Pace & Scott, 2004). It
allows to observe the phenomena in their natural settings and
adapt our approach as needed.
What people say they do and what they actually do frequently
differ and the objective of observations is to discern the real from
the ideal, the tacit from the explicit.

15. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - OBSERVING
‘Box of Shame” is a strategy
invented by Interaction
Design students for self-
regulation of their progress
when working with the 3D
printer.
Not mentioned in interviews
but discovered during
observations.

16. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - OBSERVING
 Define what you want to observe
- What are your objectives/design goals
Keep it broad, but focused so you can be able to make new insightful
discoveries
 Choose who you will observe
- Who`s perspective do you want to understand?
Create an observation check list

17. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS –
OBSERVING/
RECOMMENDATIONS
 FOCUS ON:
PERSONS-ACTIVITIES-TIME-SPACE
General
observation
guide created for
observations in
learning
environments
 PERSONS
1. Sex/gender
2. Age
3. Interaction between persons
4. Cloths
5. General attitude
6. Particular activities on site

18. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS –
OBSERVING/
RECOMMENDATIONS
 FOCUS ON:
PERSONS-ACTIVITIES-TIME-SPACE
General
observation
guide created for
observations in
learning
environments
 ACTIVITIES
1. How many people participate
2. Rhythm of the activities
3. Duration
4. Usual or unusual activities, etc.

19. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS –
OBSERVING/
RECOMMENDATIONS
 FOCUS ON:
PERSONS-ACTIVITIES-TIME-SPACE
General
observation
guide created for
observations in
learning
environments
 TIME
1.Sequence of facts and interaction
between observers and users
2. Time interval of the observation
 SPACE
1. Dimensions
2. Furniture
3. Conditions
4.Material objects
5. Decoration
6. Where is this place situated?

20. DO`s & DON`ts
DO`s
 Observe discreetly
 Use your eyes (observe the
environment and how the
people interact with it)
 Use your ears (listen to what
is said)
 Work with other researchers
DON`ts
 Be obvious (when taking
pictures/recording videos)
 Be too concerned with taking notes
(instead focus on data naturally occurring)
 Follow only one user/customer ( instead
observe different users/ situations)
 Make observations with answers in mind
(use ethnography to gain deeper
understanding)
Generalize actions of individuals to reflect
a larger majority

21. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - INTERVIEWING
 Semi-structured interviews.
Often one-on-one interviews with previously
prepared topics with open-ended questions.
Open-ended interview questions are
exploratory and allow participants to
interpret them and are used as opposed to
close-ended questions,which are more
confirmatory.

22. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - INTERVIEWING
 Unstructured/
conversational interviews.
- These conversational interviews characterized by a total lack of structure
(Bernard, 2002) are usually not recorded but rather the researcher “tries to
remember and record conversations during the day” (Bernard,2002,p.204).
- During or after observations

23. DO`s & DON`ts
DO`s
Ask open-ended questions
Phrase properly questions to
avoid misunderstandings
Speak their language
Let user notice things on her/his
own
DON`ts
Ask simple Yes/No questions
Ask leading questions
Use unfamiliar jargon
Lead/guide the “user

24. TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Overt versus Covert
Overt
Ethnographer does not inform
participants of the study and
must balance ethical issues
Ethnographer informs
participants of their study and
is transparent about
researchno
Covert

25. ETHICS
 Informed consent
Protection of privacy
Harm to participants

26. FIELD RESEARCH SPECTRUM
 The complete participant
– taking an insider role,
fully part of the setting and
often observes covertly
 The participant as
observer – part of the
group being studied, gain
access to a setting by
having a non-research
reason for being part of
the setting
 The observer as
participant – minimal
involvement in the
social setting being
studied, not normally
part of the social
setting
 The complete observer
– not partaking in the
social setting at all

27. ACCESS TO FIELD SITE
OPEN
Communities
Malls
CLOSED
Social movements
Firms
Schools
Hospitals
No permission required, but
must be accepted by the group.
Go through gatekeepers
Need permission and
introduction from a gatekeeper

28. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY?

29. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY - PREPARATION
Preparation
- Familiarize yourself with the system/topic & its history
 Identify the Focus of your inquiry
- set initial goals and prepare questions
- can be guided by design goals
Gain access and permission if necessary

30. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY
 Record everything :
- your visits, observations, impressions, feelings, hunches,
emerging questions, etc.
 Be meticulous
Field notes, audio and/or video recording
Follow any leads

31. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY/ TIPS
Seek entry points rather than sites:
The ethnographer might still start from a particular place but it is encouraged
to follow connections made meaningful from that setting. A well-selected
entry point can generate a broad spatial mapping that maintains a
concentrated engagement with the research topic.
 Consider multiple networks:
By considering multitude of networks up front, the many possible directions
that could be followed are laid out for the researcher to consider. In traversing
these networks, the field site becomes a heterogeneous network. The field site
as heterogeneous network incorporates mapping out the social relations of
research participants and their connections to material and digital objects and
physical sites.

32. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY/ TIPS
 Attend to what is indexed in interviews:
Language can be instrumental in providing clues about things to follow and
sites to visit. In terms of methodological practice, distinguishing and attending
to what is indexed in speech is generally treated as part of a later analysis
phase (Jovchelovitch & Bauer, 2000).
However, paying close attention to references to space and place in speech (or
texts) earlier on can also be a guide to the further movement of the researcher.

33. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY/ TIPS
Know when and where to stop:
Meaning saturation is one well-established approach that does not rely on
spatial boundaries to define the ending point of research. When interviews
with new people and observations in new locals yield a repetition of themes,
this may indicate that the research process has come to a natural conclusion.
Additionally, research that follows connections may move into a site where
there are less and less frequent encounters with the topics of interest.
When your time ends

34. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – ANALYSIS & REPORTING
ANALYSIS
Organize data :
- Textual, Multimedia, etc.
 Reduce and interpret data /
codes, categories/
Review and redevelop ideas
Consider multiple audiences
and respective goals
Prepare the report and
present the findings
 Visuals can be important in
supporting written text
REPORTING

35. ETHNOGRAPHIC REPORT
Purpose statement
Summary
Main body presenting findings usually organized in identified themes
Future research
Appendix

36. ADVANTAGES
 “Real-world” data
Gives a rich, detailed picture of a particular situation than abstracting
aspects in isolation
Provides in-depth understanding of people
Good for studies where the topic is
- complex
- not fully understood

37. DISADVANTAGES
 Depends on what the ethnographer has to offer
Context too specific
Must negotiate access
Time & Money
Data is messy and often unstructured

38. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
VIRTUAL/ONLINE/ DIGITAL ETHNOGRAPHY OR NETNOGRAPHY
Two different ways of viewing the Internet:
As a culture:
A “virtual” place where:
People form a culture/communities
Communities make use of technology available to them
Ethnographer can go online and examine what people do in cyberspace
(interactions, conventions, ..)

39. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
VIRTUAL/ONLINE/ DIGITAL ETHNOGRAPHY OR NETNOGRAPHY
As a cultural artefact:
 Product of a culture
 Technology produced by people in particular contexts and shaped by the
ways in which people market, develop, use it
Ethnographer can observe its structure, content, what is changing over time

40. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
AUTOETHNOGRAPHY
 Is a form of self-reflection that explores the researcher`s personal
experience and connects it to wider cultural, political, social and cultural
meanings and understandings
Rather than a portrait of the Other (person, group, culture), the difference is
that the researcher is constructing a portrait of the self.

41. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
VISUAL ETHNOGRAPHY
Visual ethnography uses photography, motion pictures, hypermedia, the
web, interactive CDs, CD—ROMs, and virtual reality as ways of capturing and
expressing perceptions and social realities of people.
These varied forms of visual representation provide a means for recording,
documenting, and explaining the social worlds and understandings of people.
It is important, however, to emphasize that visual ethnography is not purely
visual.
Rather, the visual ethnographer simply pays particular attention to the visual
aspects of culture as part of his or her ethnographic efforts.

42. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
 Subfield of the social anthropology that is concerned with the study and
production of ethnographic photography, film and new media
Includes both the study of visual aspects of human behavior and the use of
visual media in anthropological research, representation and teaching.
Ethnographers use photography and video as tool for research since 18th
century
 The anthropological filmmaking is related to non-fiction and documentary
filmmaking
- Nanook of the North, 1922 by Robert Flaherty is one of the first films
about the live of the Arctic people that serves as evidence and attempts to
record the ways-of-life of foreign societies

43. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Focus on participatory and applied anthropological initiatives in which cameras are
given to local collaborators /users as a strategy for empowerment/design/research
- Photovoice: Participants are asked to represent their communities or express their
points of view by photographing scenes that highlight research themes
Example 1:
Project Lives : A participatory photographic project used to create a new image of
project housing tenants, published in April, 2015.
Participants recruited from the projects were given single-use film cameras and
trained in a twelve-week lecture/workshop course in photography. The photographs
are underlain by a narrative documenting the challenges faced by residents,
explaining what has brought this environment to its current state, and suggesting the
stakes involved in the restoration of a once proud civic achievement.

44. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Example 2:
Understanding laundry processes at home. (Sarah Pink , 2004 for Unilever)
2 hours interviews and Video tours (1 hour) to identify:
- a sense of the identity, everyday life, priorities and morality of the informants,
representations of their actual everyday practice, their feelings about and use of
products, representations of their laundry process at home, a sense of the presence of
laundry and its relationship to to other elements of the material and sensory culture
of the home
Approach:
Collaboration with users and the ethnographer`s role was to work with them to
facilitate their representation of the processes, practices and routines

45. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Example 2:
Understanding laundry processes at home. (Sarah Pink , 2004 for Unilever)
Result:
Consumer-led representations rather than ethnographer`s first-hand observations
The importance of the video in that research:
1. Facilitates informants` self-representation – They could “show” on video how they
do things and what is important to them
2. Visual record of the encounter which documented the reflexivity of participants
but also the material context of the interaction
3. Video was also a key in communicating the research findings to the client in
addition to a written ethnographic report

46. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Example 3:
Law and Disorder in Lagos
https://archive.org/details/LawAndDisorderInLagosNigeria-LouisTheroux

47. PRACTICAL TASK - REDESIGN OF THE CAFETERIA AT ELISAVA
 OUTCOME OF THE ETHNOGRAPHY
To gain insights and set areas for redesign of the Cafeteria at ELISAVA
TIMETABLE
 1.3h for preparation and field work
 1.3h for group discussion where each group will present its findings from
observations and/or interviews to the rest

48. ETHNOGRAPHY &
VISUAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
Maya Ninova, PhD
Qualitative researcher/Independent consultant
maya.ninova@gmail.com