Descriptions of ethical theories and principles

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The fundamental point is that we are merely examining the American side or only one side in making the ethical decisions because they are organizational in nature Look at the ethics and morality of the Japanese government and in “bringing about/compelling” the American government decision to drop the atomic bomb The fact that stripping the emperor of his power was unacceptable under any circumstances made the susceptible vulnerable exposed There are two fundamental types of ethical theory: Teleological or Consequentialist theories are based on the notion of choosing one’s actions so as to maximize the value or values to be expected as consequences of those actions Consequentialist normative principles require that we first calculate both the good and bad consequences of an action. Then, we determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper. Three subdivisions of consequentialism emerge: Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action. Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent. Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone. All three of these theories focus on the consequences of actions for different groups of people. But, like all normative theories, the above three theories are rivals of each other. They also yield different conclusions. Utilitarianism is the predominant teleological ethical theory, which is the group of ethical theories that justify the morality of an action on the basis of its consequences. Teleological theories let “the end justify the means,” and utilitarianism is teleological because it considers happiness to be the end that always sought to be produced. The centrality of happiness as a value is clearly evident in the professional life of the public administrator. The aim of public organizations such as those concerned with health, education, safety, and poverty is to make the lives of people happier. The notion of happiness as justification for public action is included in the statement in the Declaration of Independence, in which the pursuit of happiness is described as an inalienable right. Utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and Mill would envision an ideal world in which the happiness of all people is unified so completely that the activities that make any individual happy would also promote the happiness of all. However, the world is not ideal, and there are many conflicts. A corporation’s management, its labor force, its customers, and its investors all have different interests that may converge but will often conflict. .

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1 SCH-MGMT 192T: TRANSITIONS: Big Ideas in Business Frameworks for Ethical Decision-making Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical issues. It also requires a practiced method for exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing the considerations that should impact our choice of a course of action. Having a method for ethical decision making is essential. When practiced regularly, the method becomes so familiar that we work through it automatically without consulting the specific steps. This is one reason why we can sometimes say that we have a “moral intuition” about a certain situation, even when we have not consciously thought through the issue. We can be practiced at making ethical judgments, just as we can be practiced at playing the piano, in which case we can sit and play well “without thinking.” However, it's not always advisable to follow our immediate intuitions, especially in complicated or unfamiliar situations. Here our method for ethical decision-making should help us recognize these new and unfamiliar situations and act accordingly. The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the more we must rely on discussion and dialogue with others about the dilemma. Only by careful exploration of the problem, aided by the insights and different perspectives of others, can we make good ethical choices in such situations. Three Frameworks Below we discuss three broad frameworks to guide ethical decision-making: the Consequentialist Framework; the Duty Framework; and the Virtue Framework. While each of these frameworks is useful for making ethical decisions, none is perfect. Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of the frameworks will be helpful in deciding which is most useful in approach the particular situation with which we are presented. 1. The Consequentialist Framework In the Consequentialist Framework, we focus on the future effects of the possible courses of action, considering the people who will be directly or indirectly affected. We ask about what outcomes are desirable in a given situation and consider ethical conduct to be whatever will achieve the best consequences. The person using the Consequentialist Framework desires to produce the most good. Among the advantages of this ethical framework is that focusing on the results of an action is a pragmatic approach. It helps in situations involving many people, some of whom may benefit from the action, while others may not. Of course, it's not always possible to predict the consequences of an action, so some actions that are expected to produce good consequences might actually end up harming people. Additionally, people sometimes react negatively to the use of compromise—an inherent part of this approach—and recoil from the implication that the end justifies the means. The Consequentialist Framework also does not include a pronouncement that certain things are alway ...

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A Framework for Thinking Ethically This document is designed as an introduction to thinking ethically. We all have an image of our better selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best." We probably also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an ethical society should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as individuals, creating ethical organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone.What is Ethics? Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many situations in which they find themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on. It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT: · Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard. · Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face. · Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to address new problems. · Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but others become corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to slavery before the Civil War). "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory ethical standard. · Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us make better ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides reasons for how humans ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it. Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we are to follow: 1. On what do we base our ethical standards? 2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face? If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what are they based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested .

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In an organization, the managers and the executives are encountered with hundreds of situations where they need to make prudence decisions which are morally and ethically justifiable. In a company there are set rules, need for hierarchical sanctions, department pressures, the need for cost cutting and enchanting profit, maintaining the reputation of the company and considering the interests of all pressure groups and stakeholders. Though there is no fixed outline for making ethical decisions, there are some factors that would influence one’s decision can be understood. However, based on the different case studies, research findings, we can conceptualize a framework for understanding ethical decision making in business.

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REGULARIAN PERSPECTIVE “To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemmas.There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning. The regularian perspective, at face value, appears simplistic. The only thing the person, making the decision regarding an ethical dilemma, needs to know is the rule(s). This perspective views that an act is morally good if it obeys the rules. If the rule(s) indicates the action is permissible then it is considered ethical; in contrast, if the rule(s) indicates the action is not permissible, then it is considered unethical. This perspective posits that the individual is obligated to follow the rules. Similar to other perspectives, with regularianism, the person making the decision must avoid desires and emotions, and act objectively. This is the most notable advantage of rule-based ethics. Sources for rules include commands, directives, policies and procedures, Code of Ethics, and laws. Problems: What if it is a bad or immoral rule? An example of this is the Nuremberg Defense; where the individuals who perpetrated crimes against the Jews during WW II, claimed they did nothing wrong since they were following Hitler’s rules to murder them. What if there is not rule? Hmmm?! What if there are two rules that conflict each other? The hope is that the person who is making the decision will find another rule that clarifies the conflict! STEPS: 1. Regardless of the possible options, what is (are) the rule(s)? I must follow the rule(s). REFERENCES Dreisbach, C. (2008). Ethics in Criminal Justice. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education. Furrow, D. (2005). Ethics: Key Concepts in Philosophy. New York: Continuum Books. DEONTOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE “To gain a sense of why it is important to subject morality to philosophical inquiry, we should view morality, not as a collection of rules, but as a set of guidelines that we must apply to the very complex circumstances of our lives.” (Furrow, 2005)As such, each of the theories discussed in CRJU 250 have their strengths and weaknesses, and serve as base – not an absolute - for resolving ethical dilemma. There does not appear to be one all-inclusive theory of moral reasoning. Deontologists believe that one’s action must conform to recognized duties, the consequences are not important. By conforming, one is “doing the right thing” not because it solely pleases the individual or promotes good consequences, but rather because the individual is adhering to the concepts of duty, obligation and rationality. The deontological perspective allows for one’s intentions/motives to be valued, regardless of the outcome. Deontolog ...

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Question 1 Discuss with your colleagues the following questions: What is Legality? Specifically how are employees and medical entities legally responsible in Health Service Organizations? Provide two specific real life case examples that you find on the internet or in the print media. Read the background articles but this discussion will take research beyond the above articles. Provide citation of authority to support your initial response to discussion questions. Peers are expected to demonstrate critical thinking in their questions related to the classmates' descriptions. Initial response to dicussion topic must be no later than midnight Thursday and then you must substantively respond to at least 2 classmate submissions no later than 6pm Sunday. See Discussion Requirements in Discussion topic entitled " Discussion Expectations and Grading" No duplication. Redundant primary posts will not be graded. Lecture articles http://www.beckershospitalreview.com/hospital-management-administration/13-legal-issues-for-hospitals-and-health-systems.html [Legal issues facing health care professionals] http://ijahsp.nova.edu/articles/Vol2num1/pdf/lazaro.pdf [ethical and legal analysis of health care case] Background Readings for week 1 discussion 1 http://www.whitehouse.gov/our-government [everyone should have a baseline understanding of the U.S. Government, specifically the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches, and legal responsibilities of individuals and organizations from each of the three branches] https://www.osha.gov/workers.html#6 [This government website outlines employer responsibilities under Occupational Health and Safety Administration federal law.] http://healthsafety.etsu.edu/docs/Employee_Safety_Handbook.pdf [This employee handbook identifies a number of state and federal obligations as it relates to employees. Pay special attention to the activities and programs on page 10 of this handbook.] http://www.wha.org/data/sites/1/emergencyPrep/EthicalResp_HCLeadership_8-08.pdf Question 2 Discuss with your colleagues 1.What are Ethics? 2. Where do they come from and who is responsible? 3. How do ethics apply to health care organizations and its employees? Provide two specific real life case examples that you find on the internet or in the print media. 4. Research a specific ethics issue applicable to health care organizations, discuss how it was handled, what ethics theory epitomizes the handling of the issue and how would you have handled the issue and which specific ethics theory would apply to your solution. [see below A Framework for Thinking Ethically to help with last question] Read the background articles but this discussion will take research beyond the above articles. Provide citation of authority to support your initial response to conference questions. Peers are expected to demonstrate critical thinking in their questions related to the classmates' descriptions. Initial response to dicussion topic mu ...

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