This document discusses beneficial and injurious insects. It begins by describing several commercially beneficial insects that produce honey, wax, lac, dyes and silk. It then discusses different categories of beneficial insects including those used for pollination, as predators of other insects, as parasites of harmful insects, and as decomposers. The document also notes several crops that depend on insect pollination. It concludes by describing several categories of injurious insects including disease transmitters, household pests, and those that damage domestic animals and crops.
The document discusses the order Apterygota within the class Insecta. It notes that Apterygota has 4 orders: Thysanura, Collembola, Protura, and Diplura. For each order, it provides key characteristics such as body structure, presence of eyes and antennae, mouthpart type, wing presence, abdominal segmentation, and reproductive features.
This document discusses cultural control methods for reducing pest damage to crops. Cultural control involves manipulating farming practices, like plowing, weeding, pruning, and crop rotation, to make the environment less favorable for pests. The practices may directly impact pest growth and reproduction or minimize their ability to attack plants. The goal is to control pests in an environmentally sound way without using pesticides. Some examples provided include intercropping cowpeas with sorghum to reduce stem borers, and destroying weed hosts to control citrus fruit sucking moths. Advantages are low cost and minimal environmental impact, while disadvantages include requiring long-term planning and not providing complete pest control.
This document discusses the impact of invasive alien crop pests on Indian agriculture over the last four years (2018-2022). It describes five major invasive pests that have affected agriculture in India during this period: [1] The rugose spiraling whitefly (Aleurodicus rugioperculatus) which infested coconut, banana, and other crops; [2] Bondar's nesting whitefly (Paraleyrodes bondari); [3] The neotropical whitefly (Aleurotrachelus atratus); [4] The woolly whitefly (Aleurothrixus floccosus); and [5] The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiper
This document summarizes common pests that affect domestic animals including dogs, goats, pigs, cattle, and cats. It describes fleas, ticks, heartworms, mites, lice, nose bots, ringworm, mosquitoes, and spiders as pests that can infect these animals. For each pest, the document discusses symptoms, impacts, and recommended treatment and control methods, such as insecticides, pour-on medications, collars, sprays, and maintaining cleanliness and sanitation.
1. The document discusses parasitoids and predators as components of biological control. It defines biological control as the successful management of pests through other living organisms like parasitoids, predators, and pathogens.
2. Parasitoids are insects that feed on other insects or arthropods during their larval stage, then emerge as free-living adults. Predators catch and consume other organisms, feeding throughout their lifecycle.
3. Examples of institutions working in biological control include NBAIR, NCIPM, NIPHM, SAUs, IOBC, CIBC, UCR, and ICIPE.
Content:
Introduction
Importance of Host Plant Resistance
Historical perspectives
Advantages and Disadvantages of HPR
Mechanisms of Resistance
Adaptation of Resistance in Plant to Insect
Morphological
Anatomical
Biochemical
Assembly of plant species - Gene Pool
Behavior in Relation to Host Plant Factor
This document discusses beneficial and injurious insects. It begins by describing several commercially beneficial insects that produce honey, wax, lac, dyes and silk. It then discusses different categories of beneficial insects including those used for pollination, as predators of other insects, as parasites of harmful insects, and as decomposers. The document also notes several crops that depend on insect pollination. It concludes by describing several categories of injurious insects including disease transmitters, household pests, and those that damage domestic animals and crops.
The document discusses the order Apterygota within the class Insecta. It notes that Apterygota has 4 orders: Thysanura, Collembola, Protura, and Diplura. For each order, it provides key characteristics such as body structure, presence of eyes and antennae, mouthpart type, wing presence, abdominal segmentation, and reproductive features.
This document discusses cultural control methods for reducing pest damage to crops. Cultural control involves manipulating farming practices, like plowing, weeding, pruning, and crop rotation, to make the environment less favorable for pests. The practices may directly impact pest growth and reproduction or minimize their ability to attack plants. The goal is to control pests in an environmentally sound way without using pesticides. Some examples provided include intercropping cowpeas with sorghum to reduce stem borers, and destroying weed hosts to control citrus fruit sucking moths. Advantages are low cost and minimal environmental impact, while disadvantages include requiring long-term planning and not providing complete pest control.
This document discusses the impact of invasive alien crop pests on Indian agriculture over the last four years (2018-2022). It describes five major invasive pests that have affected agriculture in India during this period: [1] The rugose spiraling whitefly (Aleurodicus rugioperculatus) which infested coconut, banana, and other crops; [2] Bondar's nesting whitefly (Paraleyrodes bondari); [3] The neotropical whitefly (Aleurotrachelus atratus); [4] The woolly whitefly (Aleurothrixus floccosus); and [5] The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiper
This document summarizes common pests that affect domestic animals including dogs, goats, pigs, cattle, and cats. It describes fleas, ticks, heartworms, mites, lice, nose bots, ringworm, mosquitoes, and spiders as pests that can infect these animals. For each pest, the document discusses symptoms, impacts, and recommended treatment and control methods, such as insecticides, pour-on medications, collars, sprays, and maintaining cleanliness and sanitation.
1. The document discusses parasitoids and predators as components of biological control. It defines biological control as the successful management of pests through other living organisms like parasitoids, predators, and pathogens.
2. Parasitoids are insects that feed on other insects or arthropods during their larval stage, then emerge as free-living adults. Predators catch and consume other organisms, feeding throughout their lifecycle.
3. Examples of institutions working in biological control include NBAIR, NCIPM, NIPHM, SAUs, IOBC, CIBC, UCR, and ICIPE.
Content:
Introduction
Importance of Host Plant Resistance
Historical perspectives
Advantages and Disadvantages of HPR
Mechanisms of Resistance
Adaptation of Resistance in Plant to Insect
Morphological
Anatomical
Biochemical
Assembly of plant species - Gene Pool
Behavior in Relation to Host Plant Factor
This document discusses biological control of insect pests. It defines biological control as using natural enemies to reduce damage from insect pest populations. The document then covers the history of biological control from early efforts in 200 AD through the modern period. It discusses three approaches to biological control - classical biological control involving introducing exotic natural enemies, augmentative biological control involving adding natural enemies, and conservation biological control involving protecting existing natural enemies.
The document discusses bee behavior and communication. It describes different types of bee dances that communicate important information like the location and distance of food sources, the need for swarming or absconding, and warnings of threats. The main dances covered are the round dance for nearby food (<100m), the waggle dance indicating direction and distance of distant food (>100m), and alarm, joy, cleaning, massage, tremble, shake, and whir dances that communicate threats, celebration, requests for grooming, arrival of nectar, and motivation to swarm. Effective bee communication involves the use of chemicals, touch, sound, and sometimes visual cues.
The document discusses the digestive system of insects. It notes that insects have different digestive structures depending on whether they feed on solid foods or liquids. The main parts of the insect digestive system are the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut includes the mouth, esophagus, crop, and gizzard. The midgut is where most digestion occurs through enzymes secreted by epithelial cells. The hindgut absorbs water and nutrients before waste is excreted through the anus. Certain insects also have symbiotic microbes or structures like a filter chamber that aid their digestion.
its all about respiratory system of insects, arrangement and position of spiracles system. Types of different respiratory systems in aquatic insects.
Contact Email: mzeeshan_93@yahoo.com
Parasitoids are insects that live on or in the body of another insect host, from which they obtain food and protection for at least part of their lifecycle. They are classified based on their developmental site in the host (ecto- vs endoparasitoid), competition among immature stages (simple, multiple, super parasitism), number developing from a single host (solitary vs gregarious), host specificity (monophagous, oligophagous, polyphagous), and trophic level (primary, secondary, tertiary parasitoids). Important agricultural parasitoids include Trichogramma spp., Chelonus blackburni, Bracon brevicornis, and
Animals are classified into the animal kingdom. Each kingdom is then further divided into increasingly smaller groups based on similarities. The taxonomists names different levels of groups. The development of insects classification gets further advancement when compared to the earlier classification.
The insect integument, or exoskeleton, consists of three main layers:
1. The cuticle, which is the outermost layer and provides protection. It has two regions - the epicuticle and procuticle.
2. The epidermis, which secretes the cuticle and aids in molting.
3. The basement membrane between the epidermis and organs.
The cuticle protects the insect, prevents water loss, and helps insects maintain their shape. It is rigid yet lightweight and allows for various modes of life.
This document discusses traditional and modern methods of beekeeping. Under the traditional or indigenous method, bees would build combs in wall cavities or wooden boxes, and honey was extracted by killing the bees or smoking them out and squeezing the honeycombs by hand, resulting in impure honey and a weakened bee colony. The modern method uses movable frame hives, queen excluders to separate the brood chamber from honey supers, and centrifugal honey extractors and uncapping knives to harvest honey without harming bees or combs. Appliances and scientific practices allow for better control, productivity, and humane treatment of bee colonies.
This document provides information on the history and development of chemical insecticides. It discusses:
- Key developments in insecticide chemistry from the 900s to modern day, including the discoveries of DDT and organophosphates.
- Parameters used to evaluate insecticide toxicity, including LD50, LC50, and LT50 values.
- Ideal qualities for effective and safe insecticides.
- Factors contributing to insect resistance and potential for resurgence after insecticide use.
The document discusses the structure and modifications of insect wings. It describes the different types of longitudinal and cross veins that make up the venation patterns on wings. The document outlines the various wing margins, angles, and regions. It also summarizes different types of specialized wings across insect orders, such as tegmina, elytra, hemelytra, halteres, fringed wings, scaly wings, and membranous wings. Finally, it details different mechanisms of wing coupling in insects, including hamulate, amplexiform, frenate, and jugate systems.
This document discusses the different life stages of insects: eggs, larvae, and pupae. It describes the various types of eggs insects lay, such as sculptured, rounded, floating, pedicellate, ootheca, egg rafts, and egg pods. The document outlines the three main types of larvae - oligopod, polypod, and apodous - and provides subtypes examples. It also discusses the three types of pupae: obtect, exarate, and coarctate. The pupal stage is usually inactive and enclosed in a protective cocoon.
This document summarizes some key features of the order Hymenoptera and describes several families within it. It notes that Hymenoptera have membranous wings, with the hind wings smaller than the forewings. It also describes the ovipositor and larvae of different hymenopteran groups. The document then focuses on the families Tenthredinidae (sawflies), Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, and Chalcididae. It provides brief summaries of the distinguishing characteristics and lifestyles of each family.
Insect Antennae: Structure, Functions and Their ModificationsVikas Kashyap
Antennae are paired appendages on the head of insects that serve important sensory functions. They are segmented and composed of three parts: the scape, pedicel, and flagellum. Antennae detect smells, tastes, sounds, and help with tasks like finding food and mates. Their structure varies between species and can be setaceous, filiform, moniliform, and other forms adapted for different habitats and behaviors. Antennae play key roles in insects' survival and reproduction through their diverse sensory and physical functions.
The document discusses the structure, function, and classification of insect antennae. It notes that antennae are segmented appendages located near the eyes that serve sensory functions. There are three main segments: the scape, pedicel, and flagellum. The flagellum contains many sensory receptors. Antennae can detect chemicals, smells, sounds, temperature, and vibrations. They help with functions like hearing, communication, grasping mates and prey. The document classifies 15 different types of insect antennae based on their structure, such as filiform, pectinate, and geniculate types.
The document discusses biological pest control, which relies on predation, parasitism, and other natural mechanisms. There are three basic strategies for biological control: importation, augmentation, and conservation. Importation involves introducing a pest's natural enemies into a new location. Augmentation involves supplemental releases of natural enemies to boost populations. Conservation avoids harmful practices and promotes natural enemy populations through habitat manipulation. Common biological control agents are predators, parasitoids, pathogens like bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and viruses. Each uses different mechanisms to control pests but with the goal of providing a safe, effective and sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides.
Sense organs of insects and their structureManish pal
Insects have a variety of sense organs that allow them to perceive their environment. These include mechanoreceptors for touch, chemoreceptors for smell and taste, photoreceptors for vision, auditory receptors for hearing, and thermoreceptors and hygroreceptors for temperature and humidity. The main mechanoreceptors are tactile hairs, campaniform organs, and chordotonal organs. Chemoreceptors are located on antennae, mouthparts, tarsi, and other body parts. Photoreceptors include compound eyes, dorsal and lateral ocelli. Auditory receptors include tympanal organs and tactile hairs. Thermoreceptors and hygrorecept
Immature stages of insects and Its types (Classification)Mogili Ramaiah
Life cycle of an insect can be complete or incomplete which posses different stages in the biology. If it is complete metamorphosis, it consists of egg, larvae, pupa and adult or incomplete metamorphosis with egg, nymph and adult. In the case of insects with complete development show complete metamorphosis with all immature stages that vary in size, shape and form or structure i.e., egg larvae and pupae differing each individually. Hence, different types of egg, larvae and pupae are described in this PPT (Basic Classification)
Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. Insects are the most diverse group of animals; they include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living organisms.
Nearly all insects hatch from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, and can include a passive pupal stage in those groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis. Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages.[6] The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in). The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants.
Adult insects typically move about by walking, flying, or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, composed of the front and rear on one side with the middle on the other side. Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight, and all flying insects derive from one common ancestor. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with larval adaptations that include gills, and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light.
15. JER 40(3) July-Sep 2016-Published Article_Rouhullah Dehghani et al._1-10-...Dr. Rohollah Valizadeh
This document discusses scorpion predators found in Iran. It introduces the beetle Scarites subterraneus as a new scorpion predator discovered in Iran. The beetle was observed hunting and feeding on scorpions in laboratory experiments. It lives in the same habitats as scorpions. The beetle has armor-like elytra, strong mandibles, and cursorial legs that enable it to attack and consume scorpions. Many arthropods, birds, lizards, and mammals prey on scorpions in Iran. Examples mentioned include spiders, ants, foxes, mice, hedgehogs, and birds like owls. Introducing predators is important for biological pest control as an alternative
This document discusses biological control of insect pests. It defines biological control as using natural enemies to reduce damage from insect pest populations. The document then covers the history of biological control from early efforts in 200 AD through the modern period. It discusses three approaches to biological control - classical biological control involving introducing exotic natural enemies, augmentative biological control involving adding natural enemies, and conservation biological control involving protecting existing natural enemies.
The document discusses bee behavior and communication. It describes different types of bee dances that communicate important information like the location and distance of food sources, the need for swarming or absconding, and warnings of threats. The main dances covered are the round dance for nearby food (<100m), the waggle dance indicating direction and distance of distant food (>100m), and alarm, joy, cleaning, massage, tremble, shake, and whir dances that communicate threats, celebration, requests for grooming, arrival of nectar, and motivation to swarm. Effective bee communication involves the use of chemicals, touch, sound, and sometimes visual cues.
The document discusses the digestive system of insects. It notes that insects have different digestive structures depending on whether they feed on solid foods or liquids. The main parts of the insect digestive system are the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut includes the mouth, esophagus, crop, and gizzard. The midgut is where most digestion occurs through enzymes secreted by epithelial cells. The hindgut absorbs water and nutrients before waste is excreted through the anus. Certain insects also have symbiotic microbes or structures like a filter chamber that aid their digestion.
its all about respiratory system of insects, arrangement and position of spiracles system. Types of different respiratory systems in aquatic insects.
Contact Email: mzeeshan_93@yahoo.com
Parasitoids are insects that live on or in the body of another insect host, from which they obtain food and protection for at least part of their lifecycle. They are classified based on their developmental site in the host (ecto- vs endoparasitoid), competition among immature stages (simple, multiple, super parasitism), number developing from a single host (solitary vs gregarious), host specificity (monophagous, oligophagous, polyphagous), and trophic level (primary, secondary, tertiary parasitoids). Important agricultural parasitoids include Trichogramma spp., Chelonus blackburni, Bracon brevicornis, and
Animals are classified into the animal kingdom. Each kingdom is then further divided into increasingly smaller groups based on similarities. The taxonomists names different levels of groups. The development of insects classification gets further advancement when compared to the earlier classification.
The insect integument, or exoskeleton, consists of three main layers:
1. The cuticle, which is the outermost layer and provides protection. It has two regions - the epicuticle and procuticle.
2. The epidermis, which secretes the cuticle and aids in molting.
3. The basement membrane between the epidermis and organs.
The cuticle protects the insect, prevents water loss, and helps insects maintain their shape. It is rigid yet lightweight and allows for various modes of life.
This document discusses traditional and modern methods of beekeeping. Under the traditional or indigenous method, bees would build combs in wall cavities or wooden boxes, and honey was extracted by killing the bees or smoking them out and squeezing the honeycombs by hand, resulting in impure honey and a weakened bee colony. The modern method uses movable frame hives, queen excluders to separate the brood chamber from honey supers, and centrifugal honey extractors and uncapping knives to harvest honey without harming bees or combs. Appliances and scientific practices allow for better control, productivity, and humane treatment of bee colonies.
This document provides information on the history and development of chemical insecticides. It discusses:
- Key developments in insecticide chemistry from the 900s to modern day, including the discoveries of DDT and organophosphates.
- Parameters used to evaluate insecticide toxicity, including LD50, LC50, and LT50 values.
- Ideal qualities for effective and safe insecticides.
- Factors contributing to insect resistance and potential for resurgence after insecticide use.
The document discusses the structure and modifications of insect wings. It describes the different types of longitudinal and cross veins that make up the venation patterns on wings. The document outlines the various wing margins, angles, and regions. It also summarizes different types of specialized wings across insect orders, such as tegmina, elytra, hemelytra, halteres, fringed wings, scaly wings, and membranous wings. Finally, it details different mechanisms of wing coupling in insects, including hamulate, amplexiform, frenate, and jugate systems.
This document discusses the different life stages of insects: eggs, larvae, and pupae. It describes the various types of eggs insects lay, such as sculptured, rounded, floating, pedicellate, ootheca, egg rafts, and egg pods. The document outlines the three main types of larvae - oligopod, polypod, and apodous - and provides subtypes examples. It also discusses the three types of pupae: obtect, exarate, and coarctate. The pupal stage is usually inactive and enclosed in a protective cocoon.
This document summarizes some key features of the order Hymenoptera and describes several families within it. It notes that Hymenoptera have membranous wings, with the hind wings smaller than the forewings. It also describes the ovipositor and larvae of different hymenopteran groups. The document then focuses on the families Tenthredinidae (sawflies), Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, and Chalcididae. It provides brief summaries of the distinguishing characteristics and lifestyles of each family.
Insect Antennae: Structure, Functions and Their ModificationsVikas Kashyap
Antennae are paired appendages on the head of insects that serve important sensory functions. They are segmented and composed of three parts: the scape, pedicel, and flagellum. Antennae detect smells, tastes, sounds, and help with tasks like finding food and mates. Their structure varies between species and can be setaceous, filiform, moniliform, and other forms adapted for different habitats and behaviors. Antennae play key roles in insects' survival and reproduction through their diverse sensory and physical functions.
The document discusses the structure, function, and classification of insect antennae. It notes that antennae are segmented appendages located near the eyes that serve sensory functions. There are three main segments: the scape, pedicel, and flagellum. The flagellum contains many sensory receptors. Antennae can detect chemicals, smells, sounds, temperature, and vibrations. They help with functions like hearing, communication, grasping mates and prey. The document classifies 15 different types of insect antennae based on their structure, such as filiform, pectinate, and geniculate types.
The document discusses biological pest control, which relies on predation, parasitism, and other natural mechanisms. There are three basic strategies for biological control: importation, augmentation, and conservation. Importation involves introducing a pest's natural enemies into a new location. Augmentation involves supplemental releases of natural enemies to boost populations. Conservation avoids harmful practices and promotes natural enemy populations through habitat manipulation. Common biological control agents are predators, parasitoids, pathogens like bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and viruses. Each uses different mechanisms to control pests but with the goal of providing a safe, effective and sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides.
Sense organs of insects and their structureManish pal
Insects have a variety of sense organs that allow them to perceive their environment. These include mechanoreceptors for touch, chemoreceptors for smell and taste, photoreceptors for vision, auditory receptors for hearing, and thermoreceptors and hygroreceptors for temperature and humidity. The main mechanoreceptors are tactile hairs, campaniform organs, and chordotonal organs. Chemoreceptors are located on antennae, mouthparts, tarsi, and other body parts. Photoreceptors include compound eyes, dorsal and lateral ocelli. Auditory receptors include tympanal organs and tactile hairs. Thermoreceptors and hygrorecept
Immature stages of insects and Its types (Classification)Mogili Ramaiah
Life cycle of an insect can be complete or incomplete which posses different stages in the biology. If it is complete metamorphosis, it consists of egg, larvae, pupa and adult or incomplete metamorphosis with egg, nymph and adult. In the case of insects with complete development show complete metamorphosis with all immature stages that vary in size, shape and form or structure i.e., egg larvae and pupae differing each individually. Hence, different types of egg, larvae and pupae are described in this PPT (Basic Classification)
Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. Insects are the most diverse group of animals; they include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living organisms.
Nearly all insects hatch from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, and can include a passive pupal stage in those groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis. Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages.[6] The higher level relationship of the insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in). The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants.
Adult insects typically move about by walking, flying, or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, composed of the front and rear on one side with the middle on the other side. Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight, and all flying insects derive from one common ancestor. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with larval adaptations that include gills, and some adult insects are aquatic and have adaptations for swimming. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light.
15. JER 40(3) July-Sep 2016-Published Article_Rouhullah Dehghani et al._1-10-...Dr. Rohollah Valizadeh
This document discusses scorpion predators found in Iran. It introduces the beetle Scarites subterraneus as a new scorpion predator discovered in Iran. The beetle was observed hunting and feeding on scorpions in laboratory experiments. It lives in the same habitats as scorpions. The beetle has armor-like elytra, strong mandibles, and cursorial legs that enable it to attack and consume scorpions. Many arthropods, birds, lizards, and mammals prey on scorpions in Iran. Examples mentioned include spiders, ants, foxes, mice, hedgehogs, and birds like owls. Introducing predators is important for biological pest control as an alternative
The document provides information on the insect order Collembola (springtails). It discusses their key physical features, including their furcula (springtail organ), collophore, and 6 abdominal segments. Springtails have a global distribution, live in moist environments like soil and leaf litter, and are important decomposers. A few species can be considered agricultural pests by damaging seedlings or crops.
Dung Beetle Benefits in the Pasture EcosystemGardening
This document summarizes information about dung beetles and their benefits in pasture ecosystems. It discusses the different types of dung beetles, their life cycles, behaviors, and importance in manure recycling and soil health. Specifically, it notes that dung beetles improve nutrient cycling, soil structure, forage growth, and help reduce pest populations like horn flies. The document also covers research on importing new dung beetle species to support pasture ecosystems and provides tips for management practices to encourage dung beetle populations.
This document discusses arthropods and common malaria vector species. It provides background on arthropods, noting their segmented bodies and exoskeletons. It then discusses the advantages of arthropods in ecological roles like pollination and decomposition. Four common malaria vector species are described: Anopheles albimanus, Anopheles minimus, Anopheles pharoensis, and Anopheles sergentii. Their life cycles and behaviors are summarized. The document also covers insect behavior and activity, noting how behaviors are influenced by factors like locomotion, feeding, and responses to the environment.
This document outlines the key topics covered in the fundamentals of entomology course taught at Mangalayatan University. It includes introductions to entomology, the classification of insects, economic importance of insects, metamorphosis, insect mouthparts and modifications, damaging stages of insects, and modifications of insect legs and antennae. The course aims to provide students with foundational knowledge of insect biology, taxonomy, and relationships to agriculture.
Here are some key similarities and differences between rainforests and coniferous forests:
Similarities:
- Both contain diverse plant and animal species. Rainforests and coniferous forests support a wide variety of flora and fauna.
- Trees are the dominant vegetation type in both ecosystems. Rainforests and coniferous forests are primarily composed of various tree species.
- They play an important role in global carbon and oxygen cycles through photosynthesis.
Differences:
- Climate - Rainforests are located in tropical regions and have warm, humid climates year-round. Coniferous forests occur in temperate zones and experience distinct seasons.
- Precipitation - Rainforests receive high amounts
Economic zoology deals with applying zoological knowledge to benefit humanity, such as cultivating animals for food and controlling pests. It covers topics like beneficial and harmful insects, crop pests, apiculture, sericulture, lac culture, aquaculture, venomous animals, and livestock/vector-borne diseases. Insects provide an estimated $57 billion in ecological services annually to justify greater conservation investments. Beneficial insects include pollinators that transfer crop pollen, valued at $3 billion in the US alone, and predators that control pests. Parasitic wasps, flies, and other insects also help limit pest populations. Productive insects include silkworms, honey bees, and lac
The document provides an overview of taxonomic classification and the diversity of life. It discusses the major domains, kingdoms, and taxa within the tree of life including bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and animals. Key details are provided on viruses, prokaryotes, taxonomic hierarchy, fungi characteristics, plant types, invertebrate and vertebrate phyla, and defining features of major groups.
Dung Beetle Benefits in the Pasture EcosystemElisaMendelsohn
Dung beetles play an important role in pasture ecosystems by feeding on manure, using it to provide homes and food for their young, and improving soil structure, nutrient cycling, and forage growth. There are three main types of dung beetles - tumblers that roll dung into balls and bury them, tunnelers that bury balls under or near dung piles, and dwellers that live in dung piles without much digging. Dung beetles benefit pastures by reducing fly populations, breaking the life cycles of gastrointestinal parasites, and making more forage available by completely removing dung piles. Importing additional dung beetle species from other parts of the world can further improve manure recycling in US past
The Biology Of Early Life Stages Of Fish DevelopmentCandice Him
The article discusses the biology of early life stages in fish development. Understanding fish development from eggs to larvae is important for fisheries management and conservation efforts. The mechanisms that affect fish survival during early life stages can influence future population sizes. While identification of fish eggs and larvae can be difficult due to their small size and rapid development, describing larval characteristics is important for research.
This document discusses different animal phyla that contain pest species. It begins by defining what a pest is and provides examples of insect and small animal pests that damage agriculture. It then outlines four main animal phyla that contain pest species: Nematoda, Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Chordota. For each phylum, it provides key characteristics and examples of pest species. The document focuses in depth on arthropod pests, describing the classes Insecta, Symphyla, Arachnida, Diplopoda, and Crustacea. It also discusses nematode pests like the potato cyst nematode, providing its classification and life cycle. The document concludes by outlining control measures
Please write the answers with long sentences like essay form and ans.pdfkisgstin23
Please write the answers with long sentences like essay form and answer the each living things
with each number 1,2,3,and 4. Thank you. Go to open area (part, etc.) and observe four different
living organisms. For each organism observed, 1) tell what kind of organism you saw and
describe what it was doing when you saw. 2) describe how each organism obtains
energy/nourishment 3) describe how each organism has adaptations to avoid predation 4)
describe how each kind of organism that you observed produces LARGE PLANT (over 5 feet
tall) answer SMALL OLANT (under 1 foot tall) answer ARTHROPOD (insect, spider, pill bu
etc. answer TETRAPOD (amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal) answer
Solution
1. Pine is a conifer plant which belongs in the Pinus genus of the family Pinaceae. They are
gymnosperms, yellow in colour with harder wood and two to three needles per fascicle. They are
evergreen with about 10-260 feet tall in height. Needles are green and bundled in clusters called
fascicles.When the shoot is damaged then the needle fascicles will generate bud to replace the
lost leaves. Pine trees uses photosynthesis to create or obtain their own nourishment.
Photosynthesis is the process where sunlight, water and carbon dioxide are taken by the pine tree
and then converted into sugars and starches which are used as food energy. They have thick bark
to protect against cold. Pine cones protect the seeds during harsh winter. The needles reduce the
water loss. Pine trees reproduce by producing seeds. They possess both male and female
reproductive structures on the same tree. Pollen is produced by male cone and is transferred with
the help of pollination to the female cone and results in the formation of embryos. The embryos
grows into seeds.
2. Aloe vera is a plant which belongs to the genus Aloe. It is cultivated for various medicinal and
agricultural use. They are stemless plant of about 60-100 cm tall in height. The leaves are thick
and fleshy and grown in trophical climates. The leaves of aloe vera contain phytochemicals. Aloe
vera forms mycorrhiza which is a symbiosis that allows the plant access to mineral nutrients in
soil.They have succulents which helps the plant to retain water. Aloe vera has thich and fleshy
leaves which enlarges for the accomodation of aqueous tissue. The leaf cuticle is covered with
wax. Aloe vera is an autotrophic organism which makes its own food through
photosynthsis.Aloe vera is a vascular plant which has phloem and xylem cells that helps in the
movement of water and food as per required. Aloe vera plants produce offsets adjacent to the
parent plants and also produce tall seeded flower spikes. Pollination also helps in the production
of seed. The offsets can be separated and grown separately.
3. Spiders have eight legs and fangs that inject venom. They belongs to Arachnids class. They
feed on dead arthropods. pollen if caught in webs are also eaten. They capture their prey by the
means of sticky webs. The venomproduce by them par.
Mosquitoes are found worldwide and transmit many diseases. They have three body parts - head, thorax, and abdomen. The female mosquito feeds on blood which it needs for egg production, while males feed on plant juices. Mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis from egg to larva to pupa to adult. The larvae live in water and the adult mosquito lives around 2 weeks. Different genera of mosquitoes transmit different diseases depending on their habitat and biting behaviors. Integrated control methods include eliminating breeding sites, using larvicides, biological controls, indoor residual sprays, and protective measures.
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Entomology industries assignment 2 ento
1. 1
APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
ENTOMOLOGYINDUSTRIES;APICULTURE, SERICULTURE AND LAC
CULTURE
SUBMITTED TO: DR. NOUSHEEN ZAFEER
SUBMITTED BY: SYEDA AMNA ZAHRA (16261514-002)
AFSHEEN MIRZA (16161514-003)
ALVENA JAMIL (16261514-008)
UM-E-KULSOOM (16261514-014)
HUMERA ZAHEER (16261514-020)
MUZNA KASHAF (16261514-030)
FAIZA BATOOL (16261514-035)
TEHREEM AFZAL (16261514-044)
RAHMA HANI (16261514-045)
SEMESTER: (VIII)
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT
SUB- CAMPUS RAWALPINDI
2. 2
CONTENTS:
Page no.
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................3
LITERATURE REVIEW ...............................................................................................3
COMPARATIVE STUDY ............................................................................................3
LAC CULTURE ................................................................................................4
Economic importance of Lac culture ......................................................6
Life cycle................................................................................................ 7
Lac cultivation.........................................................................................8
Lac manufacture.....................................................................................8
Lac processing.........................................................................................9
Uses....................................................................................................... 10
APICULTURE................................................................................................. 11
Species of Honey bees............................................................................ 11
Life cycle................................................................................................. 13
Methods of Apiculture ............................................................................14
Importance of Apiculture .......................................................................15
SERICULTURE..................................................................................................18
Types of silk..............................................................................................19
Stages ofsilk production..........................................................................19
Life cycle of silk worm ..........................................................................20
Silk glands..............................................................................................22
Importance of Sericulture....................................................................... 24
CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................. 24
3. 3
ENTOMOLOGY INDUSTRIES:
INTRODUCTION:
Insects are the most numerous animals inhabiting this earth. They have largely earned the
reputation of being harmful. This is due the fact that less than 1% of the insect population is
harmful. Insects owing to their tremendous adaptations to diverse habitats have much to offer to
us for technological advances in all areas of our lives. Other than the known evidences of silk,
honey and Lac production, insects have much to offer in the field of food, pharmaceuticals,
different therapies, weed and pest management, etc. Now we should start respecting the things
that insects have to teach. Then, to convert these lessons into breakthroughs aimed at improving
human life while protecting our environment. Most important industries include; Lac culture,
Apiculture and Sericulture (Barlow, 1982).
LITERATURE REVIEW:
A study conducted on beneficial importance of insects stated that only 1% insects are harmful
actually. Insects had played and are still doing very important role in medicine, Poultice made by
meshing the body parts of Grasshopper (Orthoptera) to cure Migraine. They also play an
important role as a food. Countries including China use insects as proteinaceous diet. They have
aesthetic value such as artists (pottery makers), etc. get inspiration from colors and patterns of
wings of insects of aesthetic value. Insects also act as scavengers. They help in decaying of
dead plants and animals,
e.g. Blowflies feed on dead animals. They also act as environmental indicator, e.g. caddis fly
can only live in fresh water which means less population of caddis fly identifies water toxicity.
The most important one is pollination by insects which leads female plant to grow fruits. Hence
insects are crucial components of an ecosystem. Economically, they are categorized into various
Entomological Industries such as Sericulture, Apiculture and Lac culture .
COMPARATIVE STUDY; BETWEEN LAC CULTURE, APICULTURE AND
SERICULTURE:
LAC CULTURE:
The term “Lac” is derived from the Sanskrit word “Laksha” . It means a hundred thousand and it
is suggestive of the large number of insects involved in its production . Lac is the resin. It is a
protective secretion, produced by insect called Laccifer lacca. They secrete brown color resinous
substance called the Lac. The minute red-colored larvae of this insect, settles on shoots of host
plants. While growing of Lac insects, resinous material is secreted. This material covers them.
Rearing of Lac insects for commercial production of the Lac is called as Lac culture
(Chattopadhyay, 2011).
4. 4
Classification of Lac insect
Why Lac Cultivation takes place?
Lac cultivation is good source of livelihood resource, for poor farmers. It avoids migration of
rural population to densely populated urban areas. It is also a source of income during drought
years . It requires meager inputs like water, pesticides etc. It is most suitably grown on marginal
and degraded land . No competition is there with other horticultural, agricultural crops for land
and farm operation. It do not harm host tree health neither harm other flora and fauna (Sharma et
al; 2006).
Economic Importance of Lac culture:
Following here is the economic importance of Lac culture:
1. Lac is used in the preparation bangles.
2. Lac is used in preparation of toys for kids.
3. Lac is used in preparing inks and polishes.
4. Lac is used in wood work and also used for making ornamental things.
5. Lac is used in the process of silvering the back of mirror (Norris et al; 1934).
5. 5
Fig. i1;iMale iandifemale ilac iinsects
Biology
Laccifer lacca, is the scientific name of lac producing insect. Female insect is viviparous, giving
birth to child; producing about 1000 nymphs. It is deep red in color with black eyes. It has soft
body. The legth is, 0.6mm. It has 3 pairs of leg and a pair of antennae (Sharma et al; 2006).
The larvae of this insect settle down on a suitable place of the host plant . After 2 days of
settlement, the larvae start secreting Lac all around the body. Lac secretion does not take place
except on the rostrum, spiracles, and on the tip of abdomen. Thus, it gets encased in a cell of Lac
which then gradually increases in size, along with the increase in size of the insect (Tewari,
1994).
The female nymph does not regain appendages. It remains under the Lac cell, become adults and
then it reproduce. As the Lac insects remain close together, Lac secretion from adjacent cells
coalesces with each other, and it then forms a continuous encrustation on the tree branch (Norris
et al; 1934).
Males walk over the Lac encrustation. They fertilize the females present inside cell through anal
tubercular opening. Female after maturity grow very fast, and secretes lack abundantly. Size of
the female cell is several times larger than male cell (Sen et al; 1981).
6. 6
Fig. 3;Strainsoflac
Fig. i2;isomeihostiplantsiofilac
iinsect
HOST PLANTS
Host plants of Lac insects include; Palas, Kusam and Ber etc. The insects live as a parasite. It
feed on the sap of certain trees and shrubs. It generally lives on more than 400 plant species
(Sharma et al., 2006).
STRAINS OF LAC
There are two different strains of Lac insect India. These are named as Kusumi and Rangeeni.
The kusumi strain is raised mainly on the kusum tree. The rangeeni is raised on all other hosts
such as palas, ber, ghont, arhar etc. Each of the strains produces two crops per year. Thus there
are four crops (Norris et al; 1934).
7. 7
Fig.4; iLife icycle iofilac iinsect
LIFE CYCLE OF LAC INSECT
The life cycle of lac insect comprises of three stages. These are egg, nymph and adult. A
fertilized female of Lac insect lays 200-500 eggs. It lays eggs by contracting its body in forward
direction. Eggs are laid in the incubation chamber in which the female is enclosed. Eggs are
generally laid in the month of October and November (Sharma et al; 2006).
Then eggs hatches into first instar nymph. Then the nymphs emerge and crawl over the branches
of plants where they reside. The number is so large that the mass emergence of nymphs is often
termed as ‘swarming’ (Sen et al; 1981).
They start sucking sap from the plants. At this time they are unable to feed on hard twigs. Soon
after their settlement on plant, they start secreting a resinous substance around their body
through special dermal glands. These glands are present all over the body (Chattopadhyay,
2011).
After some time the larval instar gets fully covered by the Lac covering. It is also known as Lac
cell. Once they are fully covered, metamorphosis then occur (Negi, 1956).
Pruning Operation
Pruning means cutting of the old, weak and disease branches of the plant. It is done to inducing
the tree to produce maximum number of shoots for successful colonization by the Lac insect.
Pruning should always be carried out lightly. The branches more than 2.5 cm in diameter should
not be
8. 8
cut. Branches ranging between 1.25 -2.5cm in diameter are cut, so as to leave behind a stalk of
about 30-45 cm (Tewari, 1994).
LAC CULTIVATION
Lac culture involves three important steps:
Inoculation,
Swarming,
Harvesting.
INOCULATION
Method by which the Lac insects are introduced the new Lac host plant is called as inoculation.
When infection from one plant to other plant occurs by natural motion of insect, it is called
natural inoculation. Lac sticks, having mature female insects which are ready to give rise to the
next generation are called Brood Lac (Negi, 1956).
SWARMING
At the time of swarming, the insect muscle contract. The insect get detached from the place of
attachment. When the eggs are hatched out, they become orange in color. Thus, the change in
color is an indication that swarming has taken place (Negi, 1956).
HARVESTING
Ari Lac: If Lac crops are harvested little before the emergence of larva, it is calld Ari Lac (immature
Lac).
Phunki Lac: After the emergence of larva, the lac is called Phunki Lac (empty Lac).
Immature harvesting would affect the population of Lac insects. It ultimately results in great
economic loss to the cultivators. Hence, immature harvesting should be discouraged (Negi,
1956).
MANUFACTURE OF LAC
1) Production of crushed Lac
Remove Lac encrustation from the branches. The branches can be removed by twisting them or
scrapping by knife. Scrapped material from the plant is called as stick Lac. Powder the stick Lac.
Powdered Lac is called crushed Lac (Pal et al; 1998).
9. 9
Fig.5; iTypesiofiLac
2) Production of seedLac (Chowri)
Keep the crushed Lac submerged in water. It shoul be immersed in cement tubs containing
water for 3 days. Stir the contents. Drain off the supernatant colored liquid. Transfer the material
that settles at the bottom to large vats. Add water and lime at ratio of 1kg to 160 kg of vat.
Collect the Lac dye which settles down at the bottom. Remove the bits of twigs and fibrous
material. Also remove parts of insect body that floats in vat (Tewari, 1994).
METHODS OF LAC PROCESSING
Seed Lac is often the base material on which further processing take place. The processing
results into a finished product which is known as Shellac (Pal et al; 1998).
Handmade Process
Mechanized Heat Process
Solvent Processes
10. 10
Vertebrate enemies of Lac insects:
Squirrels and rats caused up to 50% of the damage to brood sticks. Squirrels are diurnal. They
cause damage more common in under forest condition. Rats are active at night time and the
damage usually occurs near about the villages (Chattopadhyay, 2011).
Control:
It is difficult to control the squirrels and rats under the open field conditions. However scaring
away of these animals or poisoning them may be choose to keep the rodents under attack (Sharma
et al; 2006).
The important properties of Lac
The important properties of Lac are here below:
(i) It is soluble in alcohol and weak alkalis.
(ii) It has capacity of forming uniform long lasting film.
(iii) It also possesses high scratch hardness.
(iv) It is resistant to water.
(v) Lac has good adhesive nature.
(vi) It also has ability to form good sealers.
(vii) It has capacity to allow quick rubbing with sandpaper without slicking or gumming.
No other single resin, either it is natural or is manmade possess so many desirable properties like
Lac. So Lac is also termed as multipurpose resin (Norris et al; 1934).
USES
Following are the important uses of Lac:
Lac has unique combination of properties, it finds a vast variety of application in paint,
electrical, automobile, cosmetic, and many other industries.
Earlier, about half of the total output was consumed in gramophone industry.
Lac has long been in use both for decorative and insulating varnishes.
It is usually used as a first coating on wood to fill the pores of the wood.
Lac is used in manufacture of glazed paper, printing and water proof inks, Lac bangles,
dental plates and optical frames.
11. 11
Fig.6; iRockiBee
Fig.7; iIndian iBee
Lac dye is used in dying of wool and silk, soft drink formulation, pill coating and
chocolate coating (Tewari, 1994).
APICULTURE
Apiculture is defined as the maintenance of honey bee colonies, by humans. This is done in
order to collect products like honey, beeswax, royal jelly etc. Location where bee colonies are
kept is called apiary or bee yard (Graham, 1992).
SPECIES OF HONEY BEES
Apis dorsata (Rock Bee)
It is the largest bee. It is difficult to domesticate. It produces large amount of honey. It built
single large open comb on high trees and bushes (Graham, 1992).
Apis cerana indica (Indian bee)
It is medium sized bee. It can be domesticated. Its hive consist of several parallel combs in
cavities of tree trunks (Graham, 1992).
12. 12
Fig.8; iLittle iBee
Fig.9; iEuropeaniBee
Apis florae (little bee)
It is of small size. It builds single small combs in bushes. This bee gives poor yield of Honey
(Mishra, 1995).
Apis mellifera (European bee)
It looks like Indian bee. It is easily domesticated (Mishra, 1995).
The Bee Colony and Its Members
The nest of the honey bee is known as hive. Population of an average sized colony is about 30
to 50 thousand individuals. A colony is termed ‘weak or strong’ according to the number of
worker bees it has. There are three types of individuals in a colony. They are; the Queen, worker
and drone. Due to the existence of several different forms, bees are said to be a polymorphic
species (Graham, 1992).
13. 13
Fig. i10;iLife iCycle iofiHoneyiBee
Life Cycle of Honey Bees
Honey bees develop in four distinct pahses of life cycle. These pahses includes: egg, larva,
pupa, and adult. The total development time varies among the three castes of bees, but the basic
process is the same. The development time is 24 days for drones, 21 days for worker bees, and 16
days for queens (Mishra, 1995).
The queen of honey bees lays a single egg in each compartment. Each cell is cleaned and prepared
by the workers to raise new brood. The cell must be spotless, or she moves on to another one
(Mishra, 1995).
Three days after the queen lays the egg, the eggs hatches into a larva. Healthy larvae are snowy
white in color. They resemble small grubs curled up in the cells. They are tiny at first, then the
larvae grow quickly by shedding their skin five times (Mishra, 1995).
The larva is now officially a pupa. The eyes, legs, and wings take their shape. Coloration begins
with the eyes. First the eyes are pink, then purple and then black. Finally, the fine hairs that
cover the bee’s body develop. After about 12 days, the adult bee makes her way through the wax
layer to join her sisters and brothers (Mishra, 1995).
14. 14
Fig.11; iFixedihive
Fig.12; iMovable ihive
METHODS OF APICULTURE:
INDIGENOUS OR LOCAL METHODS
This is old method. Two types of hives used are:
Wall (fixed) hive
It is purely natural type of comb because bees prepare the hive themselves on walls or trees
(Abdellatif, 1967).
Movable hive
It comprises wooden boxes or earthen pitchers. Traditional beekeepers catch cluster of bees from
trees, bushes, etc. and transfer them to the above mentioned spaces (Singh, 1971).
Modern Methods of Apiculture:
Modern bee hives were designed based on ‘Bee space theory’, by Lorenzo Loraine Lang stroth
in 1851. Bee space is optimum distance to be left in between two adjacent comb surfaces in a
hive, which is estimated for normal movement and normal functioning of bees (Singh, 1971).
15. 15
Fig.13; iPartsiofimovable ihive
Types of Hives:
In general;
For A. mellifera we use Langstroth hive.
For A. cerana, we use hive A and hive B type.
Parts of typical movable hive:
Lagstroth type hive
IMPORTANCE OF APICULTURE
Apiculture produces many important products. These products include honey, royal jelly etc.
Products of Apiculture
HONEY:
Bees produce honey from nectar of plants through enzymatic activity, regurgitation, and water
evaporation (Singh, 1971).
Uses
Honey is used as a nutritious food, rich in energy and vitamins.
It is used to as medicine to prevent cold, cough and fever.
16. 16
Fig.15; iBeesiwax
Bees wax
Beeswax is secreted by wax glands. Wax glands are located on the underside of last four
abdominal segments of the worker bee (Graham, 1992).
Uses
It is used in:
Making of candles
Creams, lotions and lipsticks.
Forming comb, base and other cosmetic products etc (Graham, 1992).
Royal jelly
Glandular secretion of young worker bee produced by the hypo pharyngeal gland. These glands
are present in head (Abdellatif, 1967).
Uses
Following here are the uses of Royal jelly:
It is used in treating diseases such as; diabetes and osteoporosis etc.
It also helps in healing of wounds and it also upgrade immunity (Abdellatif, 1967).
Fig.14; iHoney
17. 17
Table.1. iComponentiof ibee ivenom
Bee venom
It is a bitter, colorless liquid, containing proteins, which causes local swelling and pain (Mishra,
1995).
Uses:
Bee venom is given as a stroke for arthritis, nerve pain , multiple sclerosis. It is also used in
desensitizing the people allergic to bee sting (Mishra, 1995).
Propolis
It is a mixture produced by honey bees by mixing saliva and beeswax with gathering from true
buds (Singh, 1971).
Uses
Following are the uses of Propolis:
It is used by bees to seal unwanted spaces present in hive.
It is also used to treat cough and throat irritation (Singh, 1971).
Fig.16; iRoyalijelly
18. 18
Mulberryisilkimoth
EriisilkimothMugaisilkimoth
Tasarisilkimoth
SERICULTURE
Sericulture is the silk producing industry. India is the second largest silk producing country in the
world after china on the 1st. Sericulture is also called as silk farming. It is the rearing of
silkworm for the production of silk. Silk is known as queen of textile and bio steel because of its
strength (Frankel and Brown, 1983).
Historical Perspective
Discovery of the silkworm’s silk was a story. It was told by an ancient empress Lei Zu. She was
the wife of the emperor. She was drinking tea under the tree, when a silk cocoon fell into her tea
cup. Due to this, the hot tea loosened the long strand of silk. As she take it out, and started to
wrap the silk thread around her flinger, she felt the warm sensation. When silk ran out, larva
appeared. She realized that it was this larva that produces the silk. Soon, she taught this to
people andit became wide spread (Hampson, 1892).
Fig.17; iBee iPropolis
20. 20
3. Reeling of cocoons: Technical Divisions
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION
This includes the cultivation of host plants. Larval stage of silk moth feed on these host plants.
Different plants required different conditions for their growth. Thus this division is actually the
crucial step. This is the beginning step for the sericulture (Hirobe, 1968).
Cultivation of Mulberry (Moriculture)
Cultivation of Mulberry is called Moriculture. It feeds on mulberry plants of genus Morus. (Lea,
1998).
Alternate plants: Alternate plants include sage, orange, lettuce, peepal etc.
Climatic conditions: Favorable climatic conditions are temperate to tropical regions.
Temperature needed is 15-37°C. The rainfall range 600-2500mm, and an altitude of 300- 900m
above sea level
Seasons: Season of plantation include early spring and late autumn with stem cuttings and root
grafting (Lea, 1998).
ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION
This includes the rearing of silk moth. This is the most usual and time consuming process. This
requires the complete knowledge of the life cycle of the interested silk moth, along with its
morphology and anatomy (Hampson, 1892).
Life Cycle of the Silkworm:
4 stages of life cycle are there. These stages include egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Eggs are of 2
types:
The diapause (or hibernating) type of eggs: These eggs are laid by the silk moth
inhabiting in temperate regions.
The non-diapause eggs: They are also called as non hibernating eggs. These eggs are
of silk moth, inhabiting in sub-tropical regions like India (Hampson, 1892).
21. 21
Fig.19; iSilkwormilarva
5th Larva makes fast round movements of its head. The movements are at the rate of 65
movements per minute. During this time it is spinning its cocoon. Larval stage comprises of pair
of silk glands, which are completely developed, about 4 times the body length and folded
extremely in hind gut. Silk glands are also called as labial glands. Silk glands are homologous to
salivary glands. Interiorly, each gland opens into salivary duct . Both ducts unite and open at the
tip of spinneret (Frankel and Brown, 1983).
Table.3;iStagesiofilife icycle
22. 22
Fig.20; iSilk iGland
Silk Glands:
Silk glands are composed of single layer of secretory cells bearing branched nuclei. These cells
are internally lined by cuticle and externally by peritoneal membrane. Silk gland has 3 parts:
anterior silk gland comprising of 250 cells, middle silk gland consisting of 300 cells and posterior
silk gland consisting of 500 cells (Hirobe, 1968).
Anterior part- no secretory function
Middle part- secrete sericin
Posterior part- secrete fibroin
Silk secretion
60-70% fibroin is secreted:
It is tough, elastic and insoluble and makes the core of the filaments in the form of brins (Frankel
and Brown, 1983).
20-25% sericin is secreted:
It is gelatinous (gummy), hot water soluble protein which holds the brins together.
“Denier” is a weight in gram of 900m long silk thread. The size of a normal cocoon is 1.8 to 3
deniers (Frankel and Brown, 1983).
23. 23
REARING OF SILK WORMS
Selection of Silkworm Race:
Multi-voltine race which complete 5-6 life cycles per year is mostly selected. Non-hibernating
eggs; univoltine and bivoltine race also reared in India (Lea, 1998).
Silkworm SeedProduction:
Hybrids of multi-voltine and bivoltine are reared for business because of its superior quality and
huge quantity of eggs (Lea, 1998).
Grainages:
These are the places where seeds are produced at large scales. The cocoons which are selected
are healthy and of pure race. These cocoons are then preserved at 23-25°C in wooden trays at 70-
80%RH. After their emergence, females are transferred to plastic trays. They are then allowed to
copulate with males of desired race under black cloth for 3 hours. Within 12 hours, female lays
400-600 eggs (Lea, 1998).
TECHNICAL DIVISION
This division is linked with the extraction and purification of silk fibers which are got through
cocoon. This is the last step for sericulture. This is the energy consuming and time consuming
step. In this step, only 30-40% cocoon of the rearing tray are allowed to complete their life-cycle.
The rest are used for obtaining silk fibers. This is the post-cocoon process. 1kg of silk equate to
5500-6000 cocoons.
REELING OF SILK
Harvesting is removing and selecting operation of cocoons. Cocoons are selected from
mountages. It also involves selling them to market or to transport to reeling industry (Hampson,
1892).
Reeling: Removal of silk thread is called reeling. About 58% of the silk in each cocoon is
reeled. The remainder is used as silk waste and is formed into spun silk. Raw silk is boiled,
scoured, steamed and purified, described asfollows:
Cocoon drying: Killing of cocoons is done by applying steam. It is done to kill pupae so
that intact cocoon can be used for reeling. Hot air stifling and sun drying is also very
common methods of cocoondrying.
Cocoon boiling: It is a common method for swelling and softening. It also refers to
dissolution and removal of sericin and gum . It is purified by acid and fermentation .
24. 24
Fig.21; iProcessiofisilkimaking
Brushing: By the help of brushing the outer surface of cocoons, the free end of silk
filament is recognized. It is the vital operation for reeling the entire intact thread.
Reeling methods: Unwinding of silk thread from cocoon is done by country charkha.
The free ends of silk filament which are comprised of 5-10 cocoons are taken together. They are
then fixed on reeling device. Then they are twisted and rolled into a single thick thread. The silk
obtained by this process is called spun silk (Hirobe, 1968).
IMPORTANCE of SERICULTURE:
Following here is the importance of Sericulture:
Sericulture plays an important role in poverty alleviation as a cottage industry.
It is the most profitable business in rural areas.
Availability of very good technology at very low cost.
25. 25
There is large demand and popularity of hand woven silk in the west.
On festive occasions, silk is strong domestic demand.
Scope for creating the large production units and organized part (Frankel and Brown,
1983).
CONCLUSION:
Insect relation with human beings cannot be ignored. A study is conducted on beneficial
importance of insects. According to this study only 1% insects are harmful. Insects had played
and are still playing very important role in Medicine; Poultice made by meshing the body parts of
Grasshopper (Orthoptera) to cure Migraine. Food: some countries including China use insects as
protein substitute for diet. Aesthetic value of it is that as artists (pottery makers, jeweler) get
inspiration from colored pattern of wings of Butterfly. Insects also act as scavengers. They help in
decaying of dead plants and animals. Example; Blowflies feed on dead animals. They act as
environmental indicator; caddis fly can only live in fresh water which means less population of
caddis fly identifies water pollution. The most important one is pollination of flowers by insects
which leads female plant to grow fruits. Hence Insects are crucial Components of an ecosystem.
Economically, Insects are categorized into various Entomological Industries such as Sericulture
which is an “Art of rearing of Silkworms to produce silk”, Apiculture; “Art of rearing of
Honeybees to get Honey and other products” and Lac Culture; “Art of rearing of Lac Insects for
Lac cultivation” (Bruford, 1993).
26. 26
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Chattopadhyay, S. 2011. Introduction to Lac and Lac culture. Department of forest and
biology and tree improvement faculty of Forestry. Birsa Agriculture University, Ranchi.
Negi, P.S. 1956. Improved methods of lac cultivation, I.L.R.I. Bulletin no. 76, 11 pp.
Norris, D., Glover,P.M. and Aldis, R.W. 1934. Lac and the Indian Lac Research Institute,
Namkum.
Pal, G., Bhattacharya, A and Jaiswal A.K. 1998. Lac production and processing
assessment. I.C.A.R.News, 13 (4) :4.
Sen P., Maurya, R.C. and Gokulpure,R.C. 1981. On some hosts of lac insects, Kerria lacca
(Kerr). Indian Forester. 107 (9) : 583-584.
Tewari, D.N. 1994. Tropical Forest Produce. International Book Distributors Publ.,Dehra
Dun, 665pp.
Sharma, K.K., Jaiswal, A.K., Kumar, K.K., 2006. Role of lac culture in biodiversity
conservation: issue at stake and conservation strategy. Current Science 91 (7), 894e898
Graham, J M (1992) The hive and the honey bee. Dadant and Sons, Hamilton, IIIinois.
Mishra R.C. (1995) Honey bees and their management in India. ICAR Publication, New
Delhi.
Singh, S. (1971) Beekeeping in India, ICAR publication.
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Barlow, H.S. 1982. An introduction to the moths of South East Asia. Malayan Nature
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2. Bruford, M.W. and Wyne, R.K. 1993. Microsatellites and their application to
population genetic studies. Curr.Opin.Genet. Dev. 3:939-943.
3. Frankel, O.H., and Brown, A.H.D. 1983. A critical appraisal. proc. XV Intl. Cong. Gent.
Applied Genetics IV: 3-13.
4. Hampson, G.F. 1892. The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma: Moths.
Vol.I Taylon and Francis London. pp.31-40
5. Hirobe, T. 1968. Evolution, differentiation and breeding of the silkworm - The Silk
Road, past and present. Genetics in Asian countires. XII International Congress of
Genetics.
6. HoZoo Lea 1998. Combining ability and heritability estimation for silkworm stocks of
mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori L. Sericologia 18 (3): 425-431.
Abdellatif MA (1967) Some studies on queen honey bee rearing in the Alexandria region
of Egypt. American Bee Journal 107:88-89.