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1. ABDU GUSAU POLYTECHNIC, TALATA
MAFARA
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES
FIRST SEMESTER 2020/2021 SESSION
PEST AND PEST CONTROL (STB 211)
Pest is an organism which is regarded as unwanted or injurious, or unwanted, it can also be
referred to as insect or small animals that damages plants. This is most often because it causes
damage to agriculture through feeding on crops or parasitizing livestock, such as codling moth
(insect that fly by night), or ball weevil (insects that eat and destroy fibers and cotton).An
animal can also be a pest when it cause damage to a wild ecosystem (household) or
carries germ (micro-organisms that causes disease) within human habitats. Example of
these includes those organisms with vector (transmit) disease on human such as rats and
fleas (an insect that feeds on human feces) which carry the plague disease, or mosquito
which vector malaria.
The term pest may be used to refer specially to harmful animals but is also often taken to
mean all harmful organisms including fungi and viruses. It is possible for an animal to be a
pest in one setting but beneficial or domesticated in another.
ANIMAL PHYLA CONTAINING PEST
This include:
i.phylum: Nematoda (roundworms) ii.Phylum: Mollusca
iii.Phylum: Arthropoda iv.Phylum: chortdata
Phylum: nematoda (roundworms)
Nematodes commonly parasitic on humans include whipworms, hookworms, pinworms
ascaris and filarids species.
a.Trichinella spiralis: commonly known as the trichana worm, occurs in rats, pigs and
humans and is responsible for disease trichinosis.
b.Baylisascaris: usually infest wild animals but can be deadly to humans as well.
c.Haemonchus contortus: is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around
the world, causing great economy damage to sheep forms.
In contrast, entomthogenic nematodes parasitize insects are consider by humans to be
beneficial

2. Plant parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crops losses. The most
common general are:
 Aphelen choides (foliar nematodes)
Meloidgyne (root-knot nematodes)
Heterodera, globodera (cyst nematodes) such as the potato cyst
Naccobus, pratylenchus (lesion nematdes)
some nematodes species transmit viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of
them is xiphinema index, vector of GFLV (Grapevine Fan Leaf Virus), an important disease
of grapes.
PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA
The members of the phylum mollusca posses soft bodies and hard external shells e.g
snails and slugs. They also possess a single flat muscular foot for movement, possess head
and anus too.
The posterior part of the members is seen to have a mantle cavity which has opening of
kidney and reproductive structures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (SNAIL)
They are soft bodied un-segmented.
Bodies differentiated into head, ventral, muscular foot for locomotion and a burrowing
and a dorsal visceral lump covered by a fold of skin.
Some are aquatic while others are terrestrial.
Some possess tentacles on their head
They have eyes on the tentacle which is used for sensitivity
PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
arthropoda are animals with a hard, outer skeleton a jointed body and limbs this make up
phylum of invertebrates that include insects such as ants, beetles and butterflies;
crustaceans; such as lobsters, shrimps and crabs; and arachinds include; scorpion, spiders
and ticks artropodes are adopted to life on land, at sea and as plant pollinators, nutrients
recyclers and prey for other animals, they are essential members of the web of life. Many
arthropodes, including, shrimps, lobsters and crabs are harvested as food for people through

3. out the world. other arthropods provide the ingredients for fabric dyes, wood preservatives and
medicines members of one arthropodes class in particular-insectar can be formidable pest,
devouring crops destroying wood structures, spreading malaria and other life threatening
disease in the air.
arthropoda is divided into three living subphyla: chelicetra, crustacea and unirama.
examples are water fleas, woodlice, scorpions, spiders tick, mites, cockroaches, house
flies, grasshoppers, mosquito, centipedes, millipedes.
PHLUM: CHORDOTA
chordate, common name for animals of the phylum chordota, which include vertebrates as
well as some invertebrate that possess at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod
called a notchord lying above the gut and beneath a single, hollow dorsal nerve chord.
About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal
phylum. Three subphyla exist: cephalochordata, the fishlike lancelets with 25 species,
tunicate, the highly modified tunicates, with about 2,000 species and vertebrate, animals with
backbones made up of vetebrae examples are rats, mice squirrels, elephant, warthogs e.t.c.
ARTHROPOD PEST
i. Class:insecta
insects are a major group of arthropods and the most diverse group of animals on the
earth, with over a million describe species. Insects may be found in nearly all environment
on the planet, although only a small number of species occur in the oceans. Insects
possess segmented bodies supported by an exoskeleton
A hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organised
into three distinctive but interconnected units or tagmata: head, a thorax and an abdomen.
The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compounds eyes, one or three
simple eyes (“o’cell’”) and three sets of variously modified appendages that from the
mouth parts. The thorax has six segmented legs (one pair each for thee prothorax,
mesothorax and the metathorax segments making up the thorax)
And two or four wings. The abdomen (made up of eleven segments some of which may be
reduce or fused) has most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive internal
structures. The mouth part is fort chewing, sucking or lapping they are seperated sexes i.e
male and female differs.
a. subclass: apterygota (without metamorphosis).
order: collembola e.g garden flea, this damages young vegetable.
b. Subclass: pterygota (they are winged and have metarmophosis)
order: orthoptera e.g grasshoper, cricket, cockroaches
Dermaptera e.g earwigs Isoptera e.g termites Mallphaga e.g chewing lice
Anoplura e.g sucking lice Pscoptera e.g booklice Hemiptera e.g truebugs
Homoptera e.g aphids Thysanptera e.g thrips Lepidoptera e.g moths and butterflies
Diptera e.g flies, mosquitoes Coleoptera e.g beetles, weevils

4. ii. Class symphala they are about 6mm long. They are white, have no eyes, and have
antennae, jaws and 2 pairs of maxillae. Adult have 12 pairs f legs. They are found in damp
places with humus e.g garden centipede. It injures seed and young shoots or sugar beets,
and other crops.
iii. Class: Arachnidan their abdomen lacks locomptory appendages. They have only
simple eyes, no compound eyes. The cuticle is often with sensory hairs or scales. They are
mostly oviparous with no metamorphosis.
Order: scorpionida eg. Scorpions`
Araneae eg. Spiders, acarina e.g. Mites and ticks
iv. Class : Diplopoda – Their body is long and cylindrical. Their head is with two pair of
segmented antennae, Jaws and maxillae. Their abdomen is with 1 – 100 segments each
with two pairs of legs. Their development is direct, they are found in moist places eg.
Millipede.
V. Class: crustacea – their head is with two pairs of antennae, a pair of jaws, two pairs
of maxillae. Their body is with a dorsal carapace. They have a larval stage development eg.
Woodlice, crayfish.
NEMATODE PEST
The nematodes or roundworms are of Phylum nematoda, and are one of the most
common phyla of animals, with over 80,000 different described species. They live in fresh
water, marine and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in
both individual and species count. They are many in parasitic forms, including pathogens,
in most plant, animal and also in humans.
Roundworms are bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic protostomes with a complete
digestive system, no circulatory or respiratory system, so they use diffuse to breath.
Nutrients are transported throughout the body via fluid in the pseudocoelon. Most free
living nematodes are microscopic, generally eat bacteria, fungi and protozoan’s although
some are filter feeders.
From an agricultural perspective, there are two categories of nematodes;
1. predatory nematode which will kill garden eg. Cutworm
2. pest nematode which attack plants like the root-knot nematode. Rotation of plants
with nematode resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic
nematode infections.
Classification:
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Nematoda
Order – Tylenchide

5. Class – secernentea
Subclass – Diplogasteria
Super family – Tylenchoidea
Family – Heteroderidea
Subfamily – Heteroderinea
Genus – Globodera
Species – rostochiensis
Potato cyst nematode (PCN) are 1mm long roundworms. They belong to the Genus
Globodera with about 12 species. They live in roots of plants of the family Solanaceae eg.
Potatoes and tomatoes. The PCN cause growth retardation and damage to the roots and
early sanitization of plants. Fields are from PCN until an introduction occurs, after which
the typical patches, or hot spots, occur on the farmland. These patches become full field
infestations when unchecked. Yield reductions can be up to 60% at high population
density. The PCN can survive in any environment where potatoes can be grown. A period of
38 – 48 days, depending on the soil temparature, for complete life cycle of the potato
nematodes.
LIFE CYCLE OF GLOBODERA ROSTOCHIENSIS
Eggs remain dormant within the dead female’s body (i.e. cyst) until the proper
stimulus to hatch is received i.e. A chemical stimuli released by the roots of the host plat
(solanoedepine). Eggs can remain dormant and viable within the cyst for 30years
While in dormant stage, the nematodes are more resistant to nematicides.
When soil temperatures are warm enough (above 10degreesC), and the proper hatching
signals are received, then the second stage juveniles hatch from the eggs, escape from the
cyst and invade the tips of the root and establish a feeding site.
Egg hatch is stimulated by host root diffusive (60-80) and only about 5% hatch in water
some eggs do not hatch until subsequent years
 Host plant cells within the root cortex are stimulated to form special cells which
transfer nutrients to nematodes.
After feeding commences, the juvenile grows and undergoes 3 more molts to become
an adult.
Females grow and become round, breaking through the roots and exposing the posterior
portion of their body t the external environment.
Male juvenile remain active feeding on the host plant till maturity
Adult do not feed Sex is determine by food supply

6. They reproduce sexually Nematode may mate several times
The eggs can survive for up to 20 years inside this cyst
 MAJOR CROPS THAT ARE SUSCEPTIBLE TO NEMATODE ATTACK.
About 2000 plants are susceptible to infection by root knot nematode and they cause
approximately 5% of global crop loss.
Examples are : citrus cotton, cowpea , peanuts , rice, soybean, cucumber, pepper,
flowers, tomatoes, banana, carrots, ginger, grape, strawberries, lotus, pawpaw, passion,
fruits pine apple, pumpkin etc.
Citrus: several nematode species are associated with citrus the most devastating one is
citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) cause the diseases- slow decline of citrus
Coconut: the most destructive diseases affecting the crop is red ring disease, caused by
the red ring nematode (Rhadinaphe lenchus cocophilus). Nematode invades through root
tissue, stem and leaves.
Corn: lesion nematodes and corn cyst nematode(Heterodera zeae) causing severe
damage to corn.
Cotton: The two most important root diseases of cotton are root-knot caused by root
knot nematode and fusarium wilt caused by fungus
Food legumes: several parasitic nematodes are associated with legumes crops; pea
cyst; stem nematode, root cyst.
CONTROL MEASURES BY WHICH NEMATODE CAN BE
REDUCED IN THE SOIL
Soil solization (specific nematode to specific crop) Fallowing period Pesticide
Sanitation Planting resistant variety e.g tomato (VFN Verticulum Fusarium
Nematode)
Crop rotation Suppressive plants.
DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE ORDERS OF INSECT OF
AGRICULTURE
The orders of insect in agriculture are: orders hemiptera, lepidoptera, coleoptera and
hymenoptera
i. hemiptera(bugs) this include true bugs, stink bugs, aphids it is divided into three sub-
orders

7. a.geocrriza(terrestrial bug)
b.Amphibicorzae(semi aquatic or shore inhibiting bug)
c.Hydrocorizae(aquatic bug)
they have sucking, piercing mouth parts.
ii. order: lepidoptera- butterflies and
moths are similar animals. But they
have some general differences.
Butterflies have knobs on tips of
antennae moths have thread like,
feathery antenna. Butterflies and
moths are similar animals, but have
the following differences:- Butterflies
Moths
It has knobs (round shape) or clubs
(heavy shape) on the tip of antennae
Moths has thread like shape
Butterflies fly only in the day time Moths are active in the night.
SIMILARITIES OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
Their mouth parts are for chewing in larval stage and sucking in adult stage.
They have no mandible and maxillae jointed as coiled tube (probosis) for sucking fluids.
They have large eyes. They have long antennae.
They have membranous wings, broad with few cross vein.
Their larva (catapillar) is worm like with 3 legs pairs on abdomen.
2 silk (a thin smooth cloth made from fibre) on lambium
iii. Order coleptera
These are the beetles
They are the largest group of animals on earth.
Coleoptera come from Greek words coeos(sheath) and ptera (wing) this refers to its
characteristics of beetles.
They have chewing mouth parts.
Some have snout (long nose) like.
Their forewings are thick (elytra)

8. Their hind wings are membranous (thin) with few veins.
Most beetles can fly while some live on the ground due to loss of their ability to fly.
Some beetle live in the nest of ants and termites forming mutually beneficial
relationship.
Beetle feeds on particular species of plant; are scavengers; predator and prey.
ORDER DIPTERAL
Their forewings are transparent, with few veins
Their hind wings are represented by short knobbed (round shape) halters
Some are wingless
Their mouth is for piecing and sucking or sponging with proboscis.
Their larvas are usually footless
Examples of Diptera are: black flies, sand flies, bee flies, tsetse flies, mosquitoes etc.
ORDER: HYMENOPTERS
Hymen (membrane) Ptera (wing).
They are insect that are more than 1000,000 spp eg. Ants, bees, wasp,sawflies, chalcids
and ichneumons
The have chewing mouth part or biting
In bees, their mouths are modified to draw nectar from flowers
They have 2 pairs of membranous wings.
Some re wingless
The ovipositor(end of the abdomen) in female is used depositing eggs.
The ovipositor in some higher female is used for stinger only, i.e. for defence.
Their larva are like caterpillar or legless
DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF BIRDS AND ANIMALS BIRD:
Bird belongs to the class Aves
They have a vertebral column and a skull
They are warm blooded animals i.e. they maintained their body temperature at a
constant level and above that of their surroundings

9. EXTERNAL ANATOMY (FEATURES) OF BIRDS
They are covered with feathers
Their forelimbs are modified as wings, usually adapted for flight
Their hind limbs are use for walking, patching or swimming and with 4 toes ,their
feathers consist of a shaft with rows of fine filaments (bobs) on each side.
They have true digestive and respiratory system
They usually laid eggs
USE OF RESISTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS TO OVERCOME
PEST
Development of resistance line seen to offer the best prospects of crop protection,
particularly, if this is combined with the use of healthy, clean seed, efficient weed control
and crop rotation.
BIOLOGICAL METHOD OF PEST CONTROL
Biological control of pest is the use of natural enemies of pest to control it, instead of
chemical agents like insecticides and herbicides e.g. Ants, Lady beetle and lacewings,
parasitoids, pathogens.
TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Conservation: Adapted to targeted environment and to th target pest.
Classical biological control: introduction of natural enemies to a new locality
Augmentation: This involves the supplement or continuous release of natural enemies
(parasitoids
CULTURAL METHODS ADPTED TO CONTROL PEST
It involves variations of standard horticultural or animal husbandry practices. This
control usually modifies the relationships between a pest population and its natural
environment.
TYPES OF CULTURAL CONTROL OF PEST
Crop isolation Planting density and spacing Mixed cropping
Timing of seedlings and planting Crop rotation Destruction of volunteer plant

10. Management of alternate hosts Management of trap crops
Other cultural methods are ; management of nursery crps, cultivation/ tillage,
fertilization and manuring, timing f defoliation, irrigation drainage, sanitation, mulches,
timing harvest and strip harvest.
ADVANTATEGES OF CULTURAL CONTROL
They are the cheapest of all They do not require extra labor They are
dependable They are specific They are not detrimental or effect of pesticides They
have no undesirable residues in food.
DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL CONTROL
They require long time planning for greater effectiveness
They need careful timing They substitute knowledge
They require skills or energy demanding They cause erosion.
CHEMICAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL: This is the use of
manufactured chemical compound, which is applied to control a pest species eg.
Herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides. etc. Chemical control forms the foremost methods
for management of insect pest of agriculture.
PESTICIDES
A pesticide is a mixture of substance used to kill a pest. The pesticide may be chemical
substance of biological agents and antimicrobial disinfection or devise used against pest.
USES OF PESTICIDES
For most cropping system and in some case insect vectored disease, pesticides are the
only practical technology.
Pesticides have rapid curative action in preventing loss of crop yield or protecting
human/ animal health
Pesticides offer wide range of properties, uses method of application to pest situation
Economic return-cost ratio for pesticides use is generally favorable.

11. 
CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES:
Pesticides are commonly classified in several ways: chemical class
target organism mode of action application on timing or usage
PESTICIDES AND THEIR TARGET
TERMS - TARGET
Algaecide - Algae Avicide - Birds Bactericide - Bacteria
Defoliant - Crop foliage Deciccant - Crop plant
Fungicide - Fungi Herbicide - plant (weeds) Miticide - mites
Molluscicide - molluscas Nematicide - nematodes
Plant growth regulator - Crop plants Rodenticide - Rodents
Piscicide - Fish Lampricide - Lamprey
Wood preservative - Wood destroying pest
TARGET CLASSIFICATION MAY ALSO SPECIFY GROWTH
STAGES
Ovicides – eggs Larvicides - Larvae Adulticides - Adult
MODE OF ACTION EXAMPLES
Broad spectrum Contact poison Disinfectant (Eradicant) Germination
Inhibitor Non-selective Nerve Poison Protectants Repellants
Systemic Stomach Poison
CLASSIFICATION BY TIMING
ANNUAL CROPS
Seed Treatment: Pesticides coats or is absorbed into seed.
Pre-plant-Pesticide: Pesticide applied anytime before planting.
At –planting: Pesticide applied during planting operation.
In furrow: In the planting row, direct contact with crop seed.
Side-dress: Next to the row, no direct contact with crop seed.
Broadcast: Distributed over soil surface.
Pre-emergent: before the crop has emerged from the ground.
Post-emergent: After the crop has emerged from the ground.

12. Lay-by: Final operation before harvest sequence

PERENIAL CROPS:
Dormant: Applied during water.
Bud break: Applied as dormancy is broken.
HARVEST-RELATED TIMING:
Pre-harvest: just before crop is harvested.
Post-harvest: After crop is harvested.
BENEFITS OF PESTICIDES
Inexpensive.  Greater control confidence. Effective and rapid.
Therapeutic. Management efficiency. Can enable other management practices.
DISADVANTAGES:
Cost of pesticide. Greater human health threat. Greater environmental cost.
Detrimental effects on non-target species. Less sustainable.
SAFETY PRECAUTION IN APPLYING OF PESTICIDE
Use the correct pesticide (Read the labeling on the container).
Deal with any emergency exposure
Know the first aid procedure for pesticide use
Prepare for accidental split-clay, charcoal.
Hydrated lime should be available for decontamination of spill surface.
Keep plenty of soap/detergent or water or anything suggested on the label.
Change of clothing is necessary i.e have extra clothes.
Move pesticide safely to avoid brokage of container. Follow the best way to transport
container.
Children must not be allowed to ride on or near the pesticide.
Never allow livestock to feed near the pesticides.

13. Secure all pesticide Container.