This document provides an overview of the course MDP 7101: Education Planning: Concepts and Issues. It discusses key concepts related to educational planning including definitions, characteristics, reasons for planning, and factors that affect educational planning. It also covers educational planning theories, models, approaches, and challenges related to educational planning in developing countries. Various types of planning are defined, such as strategic, tactical, operational, centralized, decentralized, and hybrid planning. Formal and informal planning as well as standing and ad hoc planning are also discussed.

1. MDP 7101:
EDUCATION PLANNING: CONCEPTS AND
ISSUES
Course Level: Year One, Semester One
Course Status: Core
Credit Units: 3 CU, 45 CH

2. Overview of Educational Planning
Definitions of educational planning
Related concepts
Characteristics of educational plans and planning
Reasons for planning
The interlink between educational planning and national development planning
Factors that affect educational planning.
Stages of educational planning
Educational Planning Theories
Planning Models

3. Overview Cont.
Conventional Approaches to the Planning of Education
Challenges and Prospects of Educational Planning in Developing Countries

4. The Nature and Significance of Planning
Planning is an essential concept in organizational management.
In fact it is one of the important functions of managers since it is the bedrock for the other managerial
functions.
As the adage says “a vision without plan is just a dream”.
From the same perspective, it can be said that a plan without a vision is useless while a vision with a
plan can change the world.

5. The Nature Cont..
It is also often said that if you do not know where you are going, it does not really matter which
route you take.
We will make an attempt to define planning and also highlight its significance.
Although planning is an indispensable element in organizational development, it is not without
challenges therefore, some of these limitations or obstacles will be discussed.

6. Conceptualizing Planning
The word planning is derived from which is a carefully considered arrangement for carrying out
some future activity.
A plan is a road map that indicates where one is going, how far the one has gone and how much
more distance is needed to cover.
A plan then decides the path to the end.
It is a strategy for the successful completion of a program activity or a project.
Besides, knowing where you are is vital for making good decisions on where to go or what to do
next.

7. Conceptualizing Cont.
Planning is therefore creating and maintaining a plan.
It is the designing of a map of activities that an organization or an individual intends to carry out or
undertake in order to achieve some objective.
As it is often said, knowing where you are is indispensable for making good decisions on where to go
or what to do next.
Planning is a managerial task that is concerned with organizational objectives, resources, activities
and also drawing up a plan in order to achieve those objectives.
It is the process by which managers and leaders establish objectives and specify how the objectives
are to be attained.

8. Definition
According to Coombs (1970) planning is continuous process concerned not only with where to
go but with how to get there and by what best route.
Planning also involves deciding “what to do” and “how to do it”. Besides, planning can be seen
as a process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieving a desired goal.
Tanner (1991) sees planning as “a course of action wherein a set of organized activities leads to
decision-makers to alternative solutions and where the pool of alternatives is, indeed, finite”

9. Definition Cont.
Previously, Tanner and Williams (1981) had defined planning as a set of purposeful actions
influencing an organization or some part therein to effect change.
Kaufman (1972), Planning is “a projection of what is to be accomplished to reach valid and valued
goals.
Dror (1963), defined planning as a “process of preparing a set of decisions for actions in the future,
directed at achieving goals by preferable means.
Davidoff and Reiner (1962), defined planning as “a process for determining appropriate future
actions through a sequence of choices”

10. Definition Cont.
Planning involves deciding on what is to be done and devising the means for doing it. According to
Adentwi (2000) planning is the work any manager does to master the future.
In this way planning is said to be the first and foremost duty of all managers since it involves ‘thinking
before doing’- a process of deciding in advance what is to be done, where, how and by whom it is to
be done.
Planning is concerned with the anticipation of the future course of events and deciding the best
courses of action. Hence, it is future-oriented- the springboard for future decisions and actions.

11. Definition Cont.
In general, planning can be defined as a systematic process of a purposeful preparation, in
advance, of what is to be done in future.
Therefore, planning is getting ready for the future to avoid the frustrations of doing things at the
last minute.

12. Planning is sometimes conceived in terms of time span.
In this way, it is categorized as short, medium or long-term.
Nevertheless, the time variation is neither static nor uniform as it
varies or differs from organization to organization and from planner
to planner.
In this lecture the short-term planning is conceived to cover a
period of less than one year.
Medium-term planning, on the other hand, covers a period of
between one to five years.
The type of planning envisaged for five or more years is thought to
be long-term planning.

13. Types of Planning Cont.
A good planner normally takes into account the categories. S/he
will monitor the short-term plans as steps for pursuing the
medium and long-term plans and adjusts and revises the plans
appropriately to make them fit changing situations.
However, the major classification of planning by thinkers and
experts in educational planning include:
Strategic planning
Tactical planning and
Operational or action planning.
These are briefly elucidated for further comprehension.

14. Types of Planning Cont.
Strategic planning
Sometimes called long-term planning is usually executed by top level managers.
 It often stretches over a long period of time. In most cases it is a type of planning that extends
over five years.
Examples of strategic decisions may include the goals of education, eradication of illiteracy,
awareness of HIV/AIDS, environmental conservation, etc. Strategic planning is often about the big
picture.

15. Types of Planning Cont.
Tactical Planning
Sometimes referred to as medium-term planning and
stretches over a shorter period than strategic planning.
Tactical planning is a type of planning that usually
covers a time period of between one year to five years
and it is usually done once.
Tactical planning generally aims at the identification
and selection methods that will facilitate the meeting of
previously specified goals. It answers the question,
‘how’.

16. Types of Planning Cont.
Operational Planning or Action Planning
Deals with the day-to-day operational activities of the
organization.
This type of planning is also referred to as short-term planning
and accomplishes its objectives in the shortest possible time-
usually within one year.
 Operational planning is always undertaken with reference to
strategic and tactical planning.
It is usually associated with lower level management and
deals with managers, since it is the process of developing
detailed actions about what needs to be done, and what

17. Types of Planning Cont.
It is from this view that Daft and Marcic (2006) assert that the objectives of operational planning
must be (SMART).
Specific
Measurable,
Attainable,
Relevant, and
Timely
These plans or actions are meant to aid in the realization of tactical planning.

18. Other Categorizations of Planning
Centralized planning:
is sometimes called bureaucratic or top-down planning.
In this kind of planning, guidelines for planning are usually provided or passed down from top
management for grassroots implementation.
Such planning usually takes place at the top level and planning is concerned with the fixing of
objectives.
The central authority or hierarchy is responsible for planning and coordinating policies and
procedures.
This method allows for creating a specialized group to develop procedures and principles for onward
transmission to those at the bottom of the ladder.
It provides guidelines for operational planning.

19. Other Categorizations Cont.
Decentralized planning:
Is also called bottom-up planning
In this type of planning local level employees or
subordinates are made responsible for developing and
implementing their own plans.
Lower level members or workers in organization are made
responsible for the planning and execution of their plans
with or without the assistance of top-level management.

20. Hybrid Planning
This is a mixture of top-down and bottom-up planning
With this approach the planning and execution is done in collaboration with one and the other.
The policy frames or guidelines may be developed by top management but how implementation
goes through is the responsibility of lower level managers.
Thus general policy guidelines may be promulgated by top decision makers and then each
department develops its own policy, in line with these guidelines.
Along these lines each department is responsible for developing and implementing its own plans and
procedures.
This method offers a consistent approach and ensures that lower level managers know the key facts
for a successful operation.
This is the philosophy underpinning school based management.

21. Formal and informal planning
A planning in black and white and written down in pen is known as formal planning.
It is systematic and incorporates operational, tactical and strategic plans.
Informal planning is only thinking about an idea and probably acting on it as events unfold.

22. Standing and ad hoc planning
Standing plans are somewhat permanent in nature and are meant to be used over and over
again.
In contrast, Ad hoc plans are usually generated for specific matters and are prepared only when
some needs arise- often to solve a specific problem or attend to a specific kind of need.
When the particular need is addressed then such plans cease to exist.
Hence, they usually have very short life spans.

23. Financial and non-planning
Financial planning is concerned with the use of financial tools to achieve financial goals while
the non-financial planning is related to use of physical and human resources to achieve
organizational goals.

24. Levels of planning
Kaufman et al (2002) have identified and categorized
planning into three main:
Mega, macro and micro levels.
Thus, planning can focus at a mega level (where the
client of the plan is the larger society),
At the macro level (where the focus is on the
organization or the education system such as the
school/University),
At micro level (where the individual lecturer, teacher,
learner or small group is the focus of planning).

25. Levels of Planning Cont.
Micro planning
Focuses on the individual or small group as the client for planning.
It is the individual who is the primary beneficiary of the plan (Kaufman, Herman and Waters, 1996).
For instance, educational or residential homes for persons with developmental challenges, target the
individual’s learning, mastery of specific area of specialization, or passing a test.
This type of planning focuses on specific projects or departmental benefits (or other small groups in
gaining resources, salary increases or improving a program.
The limitation in this model is that it does not seem to consider the success of the organization or
even that of the society.

26. Levels of Planning Cont.
The macro level
Is an organizational level planning.
In this approach, the client of the planning is the organization, such as the University, school or a
large group or individuals.
In this case, the approaches of planning consider the organization’s survival as the paramount
and any planning must deliver organizational continuation, well-being and growth.
In macro-planning the underlying focus and concern is making the institution’s system more
successful, not necessarily on the benefits to the learner, community, or tax payers.
Although it is good to consider the institution’s wellbeing, the model fails to focus on an
individual as well as the larger society.

27. Levels of Planning Cont.
The mega level of planning
Is a broader level of planning, where the society is the client of planning.
As kaufman, Herman and Watters (1996) have observed the current and future good of the society is
the primary focus and commitment of mega planning.
For this reason, educational systems, and individual learning must be geared towards fulfilling the
needs of society.
This is so because planning at the mega level operates on the basis that whatever is good for society
is also good for the organization and its individual member.

28. Functions of Organizational Planning
Organizational planning plays four interlocking functions. Even though they, at times, overlap
each other they, nonetheless, facilitate and fulfill the objectives and goals of general planning.
Decision making function
Technical function
Implementation function
Control function

29. Control
Function
Technical
Function
Implementation
Function
Decision making Function

30. Functions of Org cont.
The first of the planning functions in organizational management is decision making.
The decision making function in organizations is concerned with goal setting and its approval.
This task is often performed by politicians, high – ranking bureaucrats, influential citizens, and
professional groups.

31. Functions of Org cont.
Organizations also have a technical function which focuses on formulation of plans,
identification of targets and evaluation of required resources.
This function is done by professionals trained in statistics who provide the technical know – how
and expertise necessary for the formulation of such plans and policies.

32. Functions of Org cont.
The third function in organizations is called the implementation function
Refers to the procedures used for fulfilling the planned targets.
It concerns all the strategies or tactics used for operationalizing or putting into practice the
plans.
These are usually performed by administrators and bureaucrats.

33. Functions of Org cont.
Finally, organizations have a control function
Usually associated with the discovery of discrepancies between planning and actual
achievements, errors and problems and the subsequent modification of the plans.
The purpose of this function is to discover divergences and design measures for correcting or
mending them.

34. Relevance of planning
Planning is the bedrock of successful actions in any organization.
An organization can achieve its aims only through systematic planning in view of the increasing
complexities of modern organization.
The importance and usefulness of planning can then be understood with reference to the
following benefits.

35. Relevance of planning Cont.
Planning is important to managers because it minimizes uncertainty.
The future of any organization is, more often than not, uncertain and things are likely to change
with the passage of time.
Good planning, therefore, enhances certainty and helps in minimizing the uncertainties
associated with the future as it anticipates future events.

36. Relevance of planning Cont.
Good planning often facilitates the achievements of organizational objectives and goals.
For that reason, good managers plan so as to achieve the objectives and goals of their
organization.
Usually, the first step in planning is to fix objectives.
When this is done, the execution of plans will be facilitated towards these objectives.
Planning and plans often keep management in focus and it gives them a sense of direction to
operate.

37. Relevance of planning Cont.
Planning also promotes coordination.
It helps to promote the coordination efforts of staff members towards the realization of pre –
determined goals of the organization.
Accordingly, planning enhances and augments the coordinated functions of the job of
management.

38. Relevance of planning Cont.
Planning facilitates organizational control.
 Planning helps us to keep the system in check and in focus.
It is absolutely evident that unplanned activities usually cannot be controlled.
Control is nothing but making sure that operational activities conform to plans.
Planning thus helps to discover discrepancies or deviations between actual and planned
activities so that appropriate or corrective measures can be sought to modify or change them.

39. Relevance of planning Cont.
Planning helps the organization to operate economically.
When planning is done well it facilitates the proper utilization of resources and elimination of
unnecessary cost activities.
Therefore, planning enhances the cost – effective use of scare resources.
It facilitate and encourages innovation.
Planning is basically the deciding function of management.
Novel or new ideas usually come up during planning as good planning promotes creativity that
generates innovativeness and foresightedness among the planners in the organization.

40. Relevance of planning Cont.
Planning helps manager to achieve goals and targets often by using available time, workforce,
materials or facilities and financial resources efficiently.
Hence, planning helps to obtain larger and better aggregate results within the limits of the
available resources.
Planning also bridges the gap between where the organization is and where it desires to be.
It is linked with the positive progression of the organization.

41. Relevance of planning Cont.
Systematic planning promotes team work and responsibility taking.
Furthermore, planning helps to tackle complex issues in an organization.
It gives the manager a clear picture about what is to be done and how it is to be completed or
achieved.

42. Challenges of Planning to Managers
Although planning is a primary task of managers and facilitates other management functions, it
is not without limitation.
First of all, it is costly or expensive. Planning is a costly process as time, energy and money are
involved in the gathering of facts and testing of various alternatives.
The second challenge is rigidity. Planning usually restricts the individual’s freedom, initiative
and desire for creativity as it strictly adheres to rules or procedures and predetermined policies.

43. Challenges of Planning to Managers
Thirdly, external factors limit the smooth operation of planning. The effectiveness of planning is
sometimes limited because of the external social, political, economic and technological factors
which are beyond the control of the planners.
The fourth challenge concerns the non – availability or lack of accurate data: planning requires
reliable facts and data for its effectiveness.
Thus, planning will lose its value unless reliable information is available. Nevertheless, such
accurate data, usually, is wanting or unavailable.

44. Challenges of Planning to Managers
Last, but not least, staff are more often than resistant to the change process.
In general, people resist change which by and large hinders the planning process.
The uncertainty and fear of the future contributes to resistance in the planning process.
Planners often feel frustrated in instituting new and good plans because they know that people
would not accept them.

45. EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND
ECONIMICS
Education is regarded as one of the key elements to
social economics development in any nation and,
therefore, a tool for enhancing the human capital
potential of a state.
Yet to effectively and efficiently accomplish the
objectives of education, it has to be properly planned in
order for it to contribute to national development.
The rationale of the section is to describe nature and
scope of educational planning and economics.

46. Educational Planning
Education planning is the process by which an analysis of the present
condition of an education system is made in order to determine and
devise ways of reaching a desired future state.
Its aims is to coordinate and give directions to the different parts of
the education system towards the achievement of long term national
and school goals.
For this reason, educational planning is a decision making tool since
it can be used to ascertain how well a country’s education system is
achieving its goals.

47. Educational Planning Cont.
Educational planning consists of deciding in advance what has to be
done and how it would be done.
The planning for education is futuristic and entails the preparation of
a set of decisions for future actions pertaining to education.
Educational planning, according to Coombs (1970), is “the
application of a rational systematic analysis to the process of
educational development aimed at making education more effective
and efficient in terms of responding to the needs and goals of
students and society as a whole”.

48. Educational Planning Cont.
Educational planning is fundamentally concerned with the future
development of education in any particular country.
Starting with an analysis and understanding of the present situation,
an educational plan assists in forecasting what will or should happen
in the future.
The educational planner takes decisions regarding the direction of
change for the future.
Educational planning is also concerned with interventions or actions
that will improve or make better the future and make room for
survival and growth.

49. Educational Planning Cont.
Educational planning does not merely predict the
future but it is above all interested in devising
measures that will bring direct future development
towards desirable ends.
For this reason, it can be described as the planning of
the rational and economic utilization of the nation’s
scarce educational resources.

50. Educational Planning Cont.
Educational planning is a decision making tool as it facilitates in
determining suitable goals and also in preparing for adoptive and
innovative changes.
It is through such planning that decisions are translated into
systematic programs of action for execution.
Educational planning is a joint function that involves all stakeholders
in the units and subunits at the national as well as organizational
levels.
Planning is most effective when those to accomplish or implement
the plans are involved in the setting of plans.

51. Why Plan for Education
Educational planning is a tool for social, economic and political
development of any nation.
However, resources are scarce and there is not enough money to
carry out all the educational programs needed.
Similarly, there is not sufficient qualified manpower to operationalize
those programs, etc.
Besides, there are other equally important sectors of the economy
that need resources for their operations (mining, commerce,
agriculture, road and transport, etc.).

52. Why Plan for Education Cont.
Through planning, countries are able to maximize the
benefits from their scarce resources by rationalizing their
allocation and utilization.
Since change is inevitable education must be planned so
that it can determine desired changes and avoid undesirable
outcomes.
It is necessary to plan for education so that education can
survive and contribute to the change process.

53. Why Plan for Education Cont.
Planning challenges ones comfort zone since change is
about learning new skills and acquiring new knowledge and
attitudes.
Policy makers also plan for education in order to be opened
to new missions, new needs, and novel realities.
This helps people to understand that the world is
continuously changing.

54. Who Determines the Goals of Education
The determination of national goals of education, usually
depends almost entirely on the nation’s political structure
and on its social and political ethics.
National goals of education may appear as a result of a
president or a minister issuing directives and dictating or
rather imposing his/her philosophy or ideology on the
nation.
In some countries, however, the determination of national
goals of education is vested in a central planning committee
or commission.

55. Determines the Goals Cont.
Properly formulated plans or goals of education more often
than not pass through two phases before implementation:
(i) the Phase of discussion – this phase is often participatory
as it allows all parties and stakeholders to express their
opinions,
(ii) the phase of arbitration and decision – ensures that the
set targets from different sectors are compatible with each
other and with the available educational resources.

56. Reasons for Growth of Educational Planning
What gave rise to the growth of educational planning in Africa?
Many factors are responsible. However, we shall highlight only few of
them in this section.
Economic – the great economic depression of 1929 and the
problems of economic reconstruction resulted in a call for a
systematic planning of education since it is the main supplier for
manpower to all sectors of the economy.
Similarly, since education takes a large sum of the national budget it
was necessary to plan and account for the economic use of the
scarce educational resources.

57. Reasons for Growth Cont.
Aid agencies – policies of bilateral and multilateral aid
agencies, and also developed nations demand that any
developing nation that wants aid or assistance should meet
certain conditions (including drawing up a development
program) before they can benefit or receive such assistance.
The emphasis of these agencies on cost analysis and the
measurement of educational output have warranted a
rational approach to the development of education system
through planning.

58. Reasons for Growth Cont.
Ministry of Finance – in Africa the attainment of
independence in the 1960s gave impetus to the
development of education.
This called for planning and provision of physical as well as
human resources to meet educational expansion in the
allocation of scarce financial resources.
As resources are scarce, planning helps to allocate and
utilize them well in order to achieve educational goals.

59. Reasons for Growth Cont.
General Public demand– education has become the main
determinant for the levels of job an individual seeks for, as well as
the income and status of an individual in society.
Also certificates, diplomas and degrees have become the criteria for
assessing potential employees.
All these have resulted in greater public demand for education.
Hence, education has to be appropriately planned and organized in
order to meet these personal as well as societal objectives and goals

60. Economics of Education
Economics is a social science that studies how individuals and
society make choices and apportion or allocate scarce
resources, which have alternative uses, to provide goods and
services for present and future consumption.
Therefore, Economics is the study of how human beings strive
to satisfy their unlimited wants using the available limited
resources.
For this reason, it is also often referred to as the study of
scarcity.

61. Economics of Education Cont.
Human wants are many but the resources available
for satisfying these wants are inadequate or in short
supply.
Resources are scarce and individuals as well as the
society must look for other ways and how best to
allocate these scarce resources for maximum benefit.
The field of economics, therefore, attempts to give
solution to the question of resource allocation.

62. Economics of Education Cont.
From this perspective economics is often seen to be concerned with
the making of choices between alternatives.
That is, economics is concerned with how individuals and society
decide on what, how and to whom to produce goods and services.
It is from this perspective that Robbins (1935), in his book, “the
Nature and Significance of Economics”, defined economics as a
“science that studies human behavior as a relationship between
ends and scarce means which have alternative uses” (p.16).

63. Economics of Education Cont.
Economics and education are closely associated concepts in that
education requires resources to produce the desired goods and
services for society,
while economics is concerned with how to allocate or distribute
available scarce resources to produce goods and services to provide
for education.
From this understanding we can define economics of education as
the application of economic tools of analysis to the field of
education.

64. Economics of Education Cont.
In other words, economics of education is concerned with
economic issues that are related to education.
Some of these economic issues are the demand for
education and the financing and provision of education.
In this regard, economics of education is sometimes linked
to investment in human capital, i.e., the harnessing of
human skills and the productive capacity embodied in
persons

65. Economics of Education Cont.
The human capital theory postulates that the human ability
should be measured in monetary terms with the view to
facilitate the evaluation of investment in education.
Economics of education measures the economic value of
education as it allocates or appropriates scarce resources in
education.
Economics of education also facilitates use of educational
resources and output.

66. Scope of Economics of Education
Economics of education is the study of how educational
managers make official or approved choices from scarce
available resources which is meant for the realization of the
best possible educational outcomes.
The education sector is established to meet and satisfy the
human quest and thirst for knowledge.
Most of man’s needs will always create a demand for
educational resources.

67. Scope Cont.
The total supply of resources, even when fully employed, can never meet the
desires of man, and this is owing to the insatiability of human wants.
Since it is not possible to meet all the needs of man (human beings), a rational
society goes on to choose between its wants.
Hence, the principles of scale of preference and opportunity cost are often
inevitably employed.
Economics of education, therefore, is the systematic study of how to choose
those alternatives that would give mankind the greatest satisfaction.

68. Scope of Economics of Ed Cont.
The fundamental problem of economics of education is how decision
makers make use of the scarce limited educational resources at their
disposal to best satisfy their unlimited educational wants.
Economics often analyze the production of education in a nation
where resources such as the capital invested in building or
technology and the labour of the workforce are necessarily scarce.
This scarcity of resources means that educational policy makers and
other relevant stakeholders must of necessary decide:

69. Scope of Economics of Ed Cont.
How much to spend on each level of education (i.e.
what to produce)
How to provide educational services in a way that
maximizes its benefits to society (i.e. how to produce
education), and
Who should have access to each level of education
(i.e. for whom is education provided)?

70. Scope of Economics of Ed Cont.
There are different kinds of stakeholders in the educational system.
These include:
(1) The society
(2) the suppliers or providers of education (institutions) and
(3) The purchasers of education services (individuals or households).
These three major stakeholders face a twin problem of scarcity and
choice in allocating resources.

71. The basic problem here is how the society, the institution and the households make use of the
limited human, materials and financial resources they have to best satisfy the unlimited needs of
education.
The solution to this basic problem requires the application of certain fundamental economic
concepts such as the scale of preference and opportunity cost.
Since it is not possible to satisfy all the identified educational wants due to scarcity of available
resources, it is rational that wants that are most pressing are satisfied first.

72. Scope of Economics of Ed Cont.
Hence, decision makers will have to make choices among the
alternatives educational wants.
From this point of view, economics of education is concerned with
how to use limited educational resources to satisfy unlimited
educational wants.
The aim of economics of education is to identify and measure the
economic value of educational workforce or manpower, distribution
and the optimum utilization of those resources.

73. Education as an Investment
The economic view of education traditionally has employed the
human capital framework developed by Becker (1964).
In this frameworks, education is perceived primarily as an
investment wherein individuals forgo current labour market earnings
and incur both direct and indirect costs in return for higher future
wages.
As individuals and nations increasingly recognize that high levels of
knowledge and skills are vital for their future success,
spending on education is increasingly considered an investment into
a collective future, rather than simply as individual consumption.

74. Education as an Investment Cont.
Investment in education is also seen to compete for limited public
and private resources.
Education is an investment since it entails costs in the present and
also increase productive capacity of workers and income in the
future.
Private returns accrue to individuals, while social returns accrue to
the whole society (including the individuals).
In most cases, private returns are greater than social returns because
government give more in subsidies than they take away in takes.

75. Education as an Investment Cont.
Education is primarily a way to train children in the skills
they will need as adults to find good jobs and live
meaningful lives.
But education also has broader social and economic
benefits for individuals, families, and society at large.
These benefits are received even by people whose
relationship to the public School system does not extend
beyond paying taxes.

76. Education as an Investment Cont.
The widespread improvement of social and economic conditions is
seen as a direct outcome of an educated population that is able to
use information to make good decisions in a better manner and
which is collectively trained to work better.
A great deal of recent research demonstrates how the benefits of
supporting public education extend far beyond each child’s
individual academic gains.
A population that is well educated definitely has less unemployment,
reduced dependence on public assistance programs, and greater tax
revenue.

77. Education as Consumption
At the same time, the human capital framework does not rule out
that education may also provide immediate consumption.
Indeed, many economists have discussed the consumption value of
education.
For example, Schultz (1963) has identified current consumption as
one of three benefits of education, along with investment and future
consumption.
For the most part, however, consumption aspects of education have
received relatively little attention in the literature.

78. Education as Consumption Cont.
The current trends suggest that consumption is becoming
an increasingly important part of the choice of whether,
where, and how to attend university.
Human beings make various choices daily in life and the
choices that are made always impose on them opportunity
costs.
The use of resources now means that those resources will
not be available for future use.

79. Education as Consumption Cont.
A decision must be made, an opportunity cost encountered, as to
whether to allocates for present needs or future needs.
This means that some goods and services will have to be consumed
today and some in the future.
This, in essence, implies that by reducing consumption today, future
consumption might be increased.
This is probably the one reason why many attend school.
Since we are not in full time work, we are not consuming all we
could.

80. Education as Consumption Cont.
This means that we are postponing the consumption since we
believe that we are would get a better job (and one with more pay)
in the future if we engaged in further training and education.
For these reasons, we can postpone current consumption while
building up our skills so that we can increase our future
consumption.
Yet again, a barrel of oil pumped form the ground now is a barrel of
oil that will not be available for consumption any day in the future.
So to use the oil today impose forgone opportunities in the future.

81. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Planning is a key component of organization management. It can determine the
success or failure of an organization.
Planning requires certain basic principles to be effective in the planning process.
Effective organizational leaders are, therefore, required to be conversant with
these basic principles.
The planning process usually begins with an idea, problem or felt need.
To address this felt planners must necessarily go through the following basic
principles.

82. PRINCIPLES Cont.
Needs Assessment
Planning usually starts with the identification of needs. Needs
assessment is at times called needs identification.
According to Kaufman (1972) a need is a measureable discrepancy
between current outcomes and desired or required outcomes.
Similarly, Rouda and Kusy (1995) described needs assessment as a
systematic exploration of the way things are and the way they should
be

83. PRINCIPLES Cont.
Thus, need identification requires a purposeful and
systematic scouting for relevant information on matters
for which a plan of action is to be drawn in order to attain
some set goals.
Kruger and schalkwyk (1997, p. 29) also argued that “the
more information there is available, the better decision
and planning will be” this, however, is depended on the
extent and quality of the needs assessment.

84. PRINCIPLES Cont.
Realistic planning is usually based on establishing the
strengths, weakness and needs of the organizational setting.
As Deventer and Kruger (2003) has observed, planning can
only be effective if there is adequate knowledge of the
problems to be addressed or what needs to be achieved.
A needs assessment is, thus, a process of deciding what is
required to enable one do some form of work more
effectively.

85. PRINCIPLES Cont.
Hence, needs assessment is a tool for determining and
addressing the needs or gaps between the current
conditions and the desired conditions which is aimed at
solving or improving a problem situation.
Needs assessment also provides data or information about
the situation at hand before an action plan is initiated.

86. Steps in Needs Assessment
There are six steps involved in the needs assessment process:
-Determine the purpose of the assessment
-Determine what data is to be collected. In other words, what is the
population group: who is involved?
Lecturers/Teachers, students, parents, etc. in other words, what
data is envisaged?
-Determine what methodology is to be used to collect that data.
How is the methodology to be used to collect the data?
How is the method to be designed to effectively collect the data?

87. -Collect the required data
-Analyze and interpret the data collected
-Use the results of the data for planning and
setting of objectives

88. PRINCIPLES Cont.
Understanding of the Problem Situation
•According to Shapiro (n. d.) before planning it is always important to have
a thorough understanding of the apparent problem at hand through
needs analysis.
•To do this there is need to develop a problem tree.
•A problem tree is simply a visual problem analysis tool normally used to
specify and investigate the cause and effects of a problem and to highlight
the relationship between them.
•The problem tree is used to identify and analyses the relevant cause of
the main problem or issue at stake.

89. •The results of such analysis are used to formulate the
solutions and objectives for the problem.
•Understanding the issue or problem and its causes is thus
important for achieving the objectives of the plan.

90. Data Collection
Planning is a systematic process and requires data collection and analysis.
These form the basis for preparation for planning.
It also facilitates in assessing existing situations within the education or
organization setup.
This further contributes to the making of projections for the future
development of the organization.
There are two types of data that are collected – internal and external.

91. Opportunity Costs
It is important also to consider the opportunity costs and cost effectiveness of
other possibilities and alternative choices.
Hence opportunity costs are the costs, sacrifices or alternatives forgone for the
solutions or courses of action that could have been used to achieve the same
objectives.
This often requires the assessment of different choices available for achieving an
objective.
The determination of opportunity costs generally requires a cost – benefit –
analysis which is a method for evaluating costs and benefits associated with
choices and which enables managers to make authentic or realistic decisions for
organizational effectiveness.

92. Stakeholder Involvement
This is an important consideration for the fact that educational plans are made
to benefit society and not the individual planner.
Hence, information gathering from people who can influence the planning
process and who are beneficiaries to the plan is very essential.
It is thus important to enlist the views and support of other relevant
stakeholders in the planning process.
So beneficiaries of the plan need to be aware and involved in what affects their
lives.
It is, therefore, a planning principle to seek the opinions of the target group
members.

93. Set up a Planning Team
Another important consideration during the planning stage is setting
up a planning team to oversee the activities of the plan.
This normally consists of various people both within (internal) and
outside (external) of the organization.
The internal ones include teachers/lecturers, support staff, and
leaners.
There have a say and are required for acceptance of the plan but
more so as beneficiaries.

94. The external ones are parents, religious and other leaders, politicians,
professionals, etc. planners should ensure there is broad ownership of the
plan.
It is therefore recommended that as many as possible should be involved
in the planning process.
The internal and external data or information and also needs assessment
together provide several options for planning.
However, all these options cannot be part of the plan. Hence, there is
need for elimination, choice and adoption and rejection of others.
This requires selecting opportunities and prioritizing activities.
This process ensures that the scarce resources are effectively and
efficiently managed and utilized for maximum benefit.

95. Prioritize the Facts of the Problem
To priorities means to decide on what is most important.
After the needs assessment and cost – benefit – analysis is carried
out planners are required to decide which of the alternative options
or choices need urgent attention in order to address the particular
felt need of the establishment.
The alternative actions or choices are put in order of magnitude with
the most important placed highest.
Amanuel (2009) asserts that the identified alternatives actions are
examined in light of their merits and demerits and the best
alternatives arranged in order of importance.

96. Linking Mission, Vision and Goals
A basic consideration for effective planning is to link the mission,
vision and goals of the organization.
Planning cannot be isolated or devoid from these three vital
elements in organizational planning.
There must be all the time a defining relationship between goals,
mission and vision of the organization.
In the same way, these variables must, by necessity, be linked to
the needs of the organization, society, as well as the needs of the
individuals.

97. Availability of Resources
Planning is also preceded by the availability of resources.
Planners to be effective in their tasks needs to think of resources as a
major component of the planning process. Good planning requires
adequate resources.
A fundamental work to be undertaken by planners in the planning process
is to ensure that the organization has availability and adequate resources
within it.
These resources may be provided by the setup or outsourced or
partnered with other allied organization.
The allocation of resources is an essential component for the achievement
of organizational goals.

98. Set up Standards or Levels of Quality
A basic consideration for good planning is setting standards
or levels of quality that need to be met in completing tasks.
These are mechanisms for monitoring (control
mechanisms).
They should state what is to be measured, who is to
measure them, how and when it will be measured.
They should also assign responsibilities and set time lines to
ensure that the monitoring is actually done.

99. With such standards, it is possible to measure and also compare
actual outcomes or products during monitoring and evaluation
processes.
Standards help us to know how the organization is achieving
and also facilities comparison between current and future
actions or performance.
Standards are usually clear and unambiguous statements about
key elements of a given service and help to stimulate and
support the development of high quality services within an
organization.

100. Budget and Budgeting
The executing of any plan requires a well-planned budget.
Hence, budgeting is an essential consideration for any
effective planning process.
The budget is a tool for expressing the priorities or
alternatives and objectives in financial terms.
It indicates the financial resources that are capable of
meeting the activities and objectives of the plan in
monetary terms.

101. The budget paints a picture of the intended or expected
outcomes and the means of achieving those outcomes
(objectives).
It contributes to the execution of the plan.
Hence, the budget is stated in realistic terms.
Budgeting takes into consideration preparation costs,
renting venues, cost of materials (stationery).
Transportation, sitting allowances, etc.

102. Time Management
Time management is another consideration for effective planning.
A good planner manages time very well, allocates enough time for
activities, considers the amount of time each task needs, and
provides logistics for the completion of each tasks so that
organizational goals can be achieved.
There are various times bounds set by planning which helps them to
achieve the goals and objectives of their organization.

103. There are three time limits observed in organizations which
planners used to achieve organizational goals.
The long term plan is used to set direction for completion of
tasks and to achieve objectives.
The medium term plans are used to develop strategies for
accomplishing long term goals.
The short term plans on the other hand are used to allocate
resources and set targets and activities for achieving the
medium term plans.

104. Communicating the Plan
A plan is worthless if it is not communicated to those who have interest in
it or for whom it is planned. Employees need to understand the plan to
execute it.
They are the ones to facilitate its day – to – day implementation.
The best way to ensure credibility of the plan is to communicate full
information through open presentation of all the components of the plan
including the sources of income, their allocation and utilization.
Similarly, the sources, allocation and utilization of other resources which
are necessary for the achieving, the objectives and goals of the
organization must be communicated to all and sundry.

105. Evaluating the Approved Plan
The planning process is incomplete if the approved plans are not
evaluated to find out if the planned activities are in line with the actual
and executed plans.
It requires the planner, in evaluating, to ask the following questions:
what is to be evaluated? Why is it to be evaluated? How and where it is to
be evaluated? Who is involved in the evaluation of the plan? What
strategies or criteria are to be used for evaluating? What indicators/
benchmarks are set for the evaluation of the plan? Was the planned
objectives achieved or not?

106. THE PROCESS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Planning has been defined as a process of mapping out a logical structure
referred to as a plan aimed at obtaining or fulfilling some desirable outcomes.
According to Mishra (2007) planning is a process of preparing a set of decisions
for action in the future directed at achieving goals.
Educational planning has also been defined as a process of preparing decisions
for action in a specified period of time that is directed at achieving educational
objectives.
As a process then educational planning involves several cyclical steps or stages
that are required to realize policy objectives.
For this reason, we describe here the steps and procedures involved in
educational planning.

107. Identification of National Goals of Education
Planning must give direction to achieving national goals – education
must, therefore, be planned and used as a tool to achieve national
goals.
Educational plans must also reflect national philosophy and goals.
Hence, educational plans should involve analysis of the current
educational situation since it takes into consideration data available
for analysis of the situation, e.g., enrollment by level of education,
class size, number of teachers, etc. educational goals must be
relevant, realizable and operationalizable.

108. Akin to the identification of national goals is the formulation of
educational objectives.
The realization of goals is through setting objectives which are
statements that are capable of attainment and measurements.
In this first stage of the planning process, the principal activity is to
define the national educational goals and objectives by the
appropriate authority.
The set objectives must be SMART (i.e. short, measureable,
attainable, relevant and timely)

109. Set Priorities and Targets
Targets are set according to needs that have been identified and
priorities assigned.
Therefore, setting priorities and targets refers to the identification of
alternative ways of achieving the various objectives.
The alternatives are considered in terms of their relative costs,
benefits, timeframe, feasibility, and effectiveness.
The alternatives are obtained from within and outside of the
organization.

110. With such data, future needs are reviewed, priorities are
established taking into consideration the scarce available
resources, and set realistic or achievable targets.
Setting priorities and targets is a stage of testing the
alternative means of achieving the goals and where the
most relevant and cost effective ways of achieving the
objectives are determined.
The purpose is to allocate the scarce available resources to
the educational subsectors.

111. Conditions that Influence Achievement of Objectives
The next step is to consider all the factors that can influence the
achievement of the objectives of education.
For instance, at national level, Government can influence the decisions of
those it considers influential in the planning process.
Government may influence the planning body to state goals in so general
terms that they may be side – stepped or adopted with flexible timetable.
In this way the political undertone may influence the achievement of the
stipulated goals of education.

112. The situation is even more difficult and complicated when the goals and
objectives set are dictated by political or election promises, hasty decisions
made on political grounds, or idealistic commitments in the initial stages.
Such educational plans may become complicated especially when government
has committed itself publicly to the achievement of certain targets by a definite
timeline that turns out to be unrealistic, but they cannot openly renounced.
In the same manner business people and other Religious or pressure groups can
also influence the planning process.
Inflation and its effect on cost of living, and education can also influence the
achievement of educational objectives.

113. Feasibility Testing
This is the process of testing the various alternatives or possible
means of achieving the objectives.
This is tested against internal and external bottlenecks of the setup.
The plan should consider the following reactions from society and
culture, pressures from political interest groups, lack of support of
the administrative or bureaucratic machinery, and incompatibility of
economic and market forces.

114. This is necessary to ensure whether the set targets are consistent and feasible
for achieving the preset objectives and goals.
Feasibility testing uses close and open methods. In the closed method, the
planner should discuss and brainstorm among the staff in order to clear any
inconsistencies.
It should, however, never be precluded that the general public will accept the
plan after the discussion and brainstorming.
In the open method, the planner will obtain or get views of external
stakeholders.
This includes all those who will be affected by the plan, beneficiaries, the
implementers, etc. this is necessary in order to “test out” their various reactions.

115. Choosing the Optimum Method for the Plan
When all these hurdles have been cleared, a decision on the plan is now
taken and the choice of method for achieving the objectives is justified.
This implies, a decision is made on the formulated educational plan and
the choice of method for achieving the objectives and goals.
All the arguments and data for the choice of objectives are now put in a
suitable format and presented to the appropriate authorities for further
consideration.
The draft document is then produced and submitted for approval to the
relevant authority.

116. This draft plan may pass or be rejected and sent back
for further revision, clarification, and amendments.
If the plan is accepted without alteration, it may be
approved for implementation.
At this point, personnel are selected and trained for
dealing with the real implementation of the approved
policy plan.

117. Evaluation or Feedback
The plan needs to have a built – in mechanism of
monitoring for achieving the stated objectives and goals.
The proposals in the plan should be revised constantly.
The progress of the plan is assessed or monitored on a
regular basis and corrective measures taken.

118. Relevant questions to ask during evaluation of the
plan are:
Has the plan conformed to the objectives?
Have the objectives been achieved? If not, why?
What is the degree of success or failure of the plan?
These questions will help the planner to objectively
assess the plan and the entire education system.

119. Stages of educational planning
The normative stage - policy formulation
The strategic stage - need assessment (diagnosis)
Plan formulation (consideration of possible solutions)
Plan elaboration (programming)
The operational stage – plan implementation
Plan evaluation
other approaches to educational planning.

120. Concepts:
Planning means deciding in advance what is to be done, when, where, how, and who
is to do it in order to achieve predetermined goals and objectives.
Educational planning involves a systematic and scientific set of decisions for future
action with the aim of achieving set educational goals and objectives through
effective use of scarce resources.
It provides the tool for coordinating and controlling the direction of the educational
system so that educational objectives can be realized.
It is a process of identifying and classifying educational needs of a nation and the
direction education should take and the strategies for implementing decisions
concerning educational development.
Akpan (2000) maintains that educational planning should reflect the state of
development of a nation including the needs and readiness to execute the planned
objectives. Thus, educational planning must take into consideration the population
growth of children of school age in relation to access to education, educational
opportunities and the demand for education.

121. Stages of planning
Normative Stage (Policy Formulation)
Strategic Stage (needs assessment/diagnosis)
Plan formulation Stage (consideration of possible solutions)
Plan Elaboration Stage (Programming)
Operational Stage (Plan implementation, plan evaluation)

122. Normative Stage
Characterized by formulation of objectives. These will involve the following processes;
◦ the creation of a suitable planning organization,
◦ the establishment of planning procedures,
◦ the structural reorganization of the educational administrative machinery to participate in the
formulation and implementation of plans and
◦ setting up the machinery and the procedures for the collection and analysis of the statistical data
required for planning.
After accomplishing the above, the principal pre-planning activity is to have the national
educational objectives defined by the appropriate authority.

123. Strategic Stage
This stage tells people what the school wants to do in future and how it plans to get
there
Summarise
findings in a
SWOT analysis
Strategic Plan
Cycle
Examine the
external issues Examine internal
issues
Propose goals
Formulate
Strategy
Propose
missions

124. Strategic Stage Cont.
Five steps of Strategic Planning
◦Determine your strategic plan
◦Prioritize your objectives
◦Develop a strategic plan
◦Execute a strategic plan
◦Review and revise the plan

125. Plan Formulation Stage:
The purpose of planning is primarily two-fold:
◦ To present a set of decisions to the appropriate national authorities for approval: and
◦ To provide a blue-print for action by the various agencies responsible for implementing those decisions.
For both purposes, the authorities or the agencies concerned require a clear statement of what
is proposed, why it is proposed and how the proposals are going to be implemented.
What is called an Education Plan is that statement.
Preparation of such a statement is referred to as Plan Formulation. It calls for certain skills as the
statement has to be brief, concise and, at the same time, adequate.

126. Plan Elaboration Stage
It is an emphasis and it is a brief and succinct statement, so before it can be
implemented,
It has to be elaborated, that is, expanded up to the point that individual action units
become clearly identifiable.
The process of elaboration is in two steps namely:
◦ Programming
◦ Project Identification and Formulation

127. Plan Elaboration Cont.
Programming
◦ This is dividing up the Plan into broad action areas, each of which aims at accomplishing a specific
objective.
◦ Each action area is called a programme that comprises of all activities which are supervised by the same
administrative unit or which are so interdependent and complementary that all have to be done
simultaneously or sequentially.

128. Plan Elaboration Cont.
Project Identification and Formulation
Here each programme consists of activities which can be grouped together to form a unit for
administrative or accounting purposes and such a unit is called a Project
A project therefore, usually aims at achieving a specific sub-objective or target within the main
objective of the programme.
It should be noted that until a Plan has been subjected to Programming and Project Identification and
Formulation, the actual implementation cannot be undertaken, hence, this is a very important stage.
In most countries the problem of non implementation of plans has been traced to weaknesses in this
link of the planning process.
There is a further step in the elaboration of a plan which is optional that is Regionalization.
Regionalization means the distribution of the provisions of a plan to geographically identifiable units,
such as Regions, Districts, Counties, Municipalities, Villages etc.
Regionalization applies to the plan as a whole when it is prepared for the entire country. It can also
apply to a programme or a project.

129. Operational Stage:
This is also known as the plan implementation stage.
The implementation of an education plan begins when individual projects are taken up for
execution.
Here, the planning process merges with the management process of the national
educational effort.
Using the annual budget or the annual plan as the principal instrument, an organizational
framework is developed for the various projects.
The following are considered;
◦ resources (men, money and materials), needed
◦ The time within which it is to be completed is indicated.
◦ Operational details as delegation of authority, lines of communication and consultation,
assignment of responsibility and installation of feedback and control mechanisms are also
developed.
Generally, the entire educational administrative organization of the nation participates in
the Plan Implementation Stage.

130. References
(Akpan, C. P. (2000). Effective planning: A pre-requisite for successful implementation of the
Universal Basic Education (UBE) scheme. International Journal of Research in Basic and Life-Long
Education. 1(1&2), 102-109. Akpan, C. P. (2011). Fundamentals of School Business Management.
Calabar: Primchoice Konsult)

131. Planning Models
The rational decision making model
People will make choices that maximize benefits and
minimize any costs.
The idea of rational choice is easy to see in economic
theory.
The rational model also assumes:
An individual has full and perfect information on which to
base a choice.

132. The rational decision Cont.
Measurable criteria exist for which data can be
collected and analyzed.
An individual has the intellectual/cognitive ability,
time, and resources to evaluate each alternative
against the others.

133. Rational decision making may involve several
different processes.
Regardless of the various steps in each process,
rational decision processes
have similarities that mostly result in effective
solutions. A model of rational decision making
is presented in the following steps:

134. The Rational Decision-Making Process
1. Identifying the problem that requires a solution
2. Identifying the solution scenario
3. Carrying out a gap analysis
4. Gathering facts, options, and alternatives
5. Analyzing option outcomes
6. Selecting best possible options
7. Implementing decision for solution and evaluate final
outcome

135. The rational decision Cont.
Identifying the Problem that Requires a Solution
•It is important in any problematic situation to properly clarify what the problem is that requires
a distinct decision-making process for a solution.
•If the problem is not properly understood, the decision maker may engage in doing too much
or too little to solve the problem.

136. The rational decision Cont.
The rational-decision-making model does not consider factors that cannot be quantified, such as
ethical concerns or the value of altruism.
It leaves out consideration of personal feelings, loyalties, or sense of obligation.
 Its objectivity creates a bias toward the preference for facts, data and analysis over intuition or
desires.

137. The rational decision Cont.
Identifying the Solution Scenario
Equally important in the rational decision-making process is
defining what a solution scenario will look like at the end of
the process.
What characteristics will determine that a solution has
been
found? In other words, what will success look like?
What are the identifiers that will be observed to
characterize success?

138. The rational decision Cont.
For instance, if XYZ are in place, will that mean success?
For some managers, if the organization’s financial returns are enough to pay the
bills, remunerate the employees, and also have enough profit to service investor
portfolios, then that is a picture of success.
For some other managers, that is a problem that requires rational decision
making for solution.
Indices and marginal qualifiers are some determinants of success for many. If the
numbers
fall beyond the preset indices or qualifiers, then a problem is identified.

139. The rational decision Cont.
Success will simply mean that the profit
levels have exceeded the preset indices and
qualifiers by a preset minimum ratio.
Understanding what success will look like
is inevitable for accurate gap analysis.

140. The rational decision Cont.
Carrying Out a Gap Analysis
A gap analysis is simply defining and understanding the gap between
the problem and the solution.
What is it going to take, for instance, for the organization to go from
the identified problem to
the identified solution?
Gap analysis can be defined as “a technique that institutions use to
determine what steps need to be taken in order to move from its
current state to its desired, future state.”

141. The rational decision Cont.
The problem has been accurately defined and an accurate
picture of success has been determined,
The next step will be to determine what it takes to go from
problem to solution.
This is an aspect of rational decision making that should
involve other people as think tanks.
In this regard, all the possible steps involved with the gap
analysis will be mostly identified.

142. The rational decision Cont.
If the solution will require project management for
solution, the steps identified in the gap analysis will become
the specific goals and specific success criteria that will be
achieved toward success.
During think tank sessions, the manager or management is
able to accurately analyze where the institution is and
where they want to be but, most particularly, how to get
there.

143. The rational decision Cont.
Gathering Facts, Options, and Alternatives
The next phase in this rational decision-making model is to gather facts and
options surrounding the steps that have been identified in the gap analysis.
To be properly informed is at the center of effective rational decision making.
With the information gathered, considerations will be made on how the steps
that will be taken will affect the stakeholders involved, positively or negatively.
Somebody somewhere may have researched the steps to be taken or may have
even taken similar steps.
The facts from the outcomes may prove very useful in the eventual decisions
made at that point.

144. Analyzing Option Outcomes
With the facts in hand, the consequences or outcomes of
the various options identified should be analyzed to
determine the most effective and functional option.
Adequate time should be allotted for studying and
identifying the possible outcomes of each of the options to
be studied.
 An integral aspect of the study will be to weigh in on how
the different outcomes will impact stakeholders involved.

145. The rational decision Cont.
There may be outcomes that do not favor some
stakeholders while the same outcomes favor others.
Situations like these can be challenging to resolve.
This is where a think tank team maybe useful again.
The goal is to accurately predict the outcome of each of the
options selected, and from these predictions, a final option
is selected.

146. The rational decision Cont.
Implementing Decision for Solution and Evaluating Final
Outcome
After the best option has been selected, the decision has to
be implemented accurately as decided for effective and
functional solution.
This phase of the model may sound redundant, but it is an
imperative aspect of rational decision making.
Securing a hitch-free implementation of the decision made
provides a successful closure to the process.

147. The rational decision Cont.
After the decision or option has been implemented,
it is also important to evaluate the final outcome
based on the solution scenario that was created in
the second step.
Has success being achieved?
If it is not looking like success, then there is a need to
go back to the gap analysis phase and reevaluate the
steps decided for the solution process.

148. The rational decision Cont.
Assumptions of the rational decision making model
Problem Clarity
The problem is clear and unambiguous
Known Options
The decision maker can identify all relevant criteria and viable alternatives
Clear Preferences
Rationality assumes that the criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted
Constant preferences
Specific decision criteria

149. Conclusion
Rational decision making has been defined as a more
advanced type of decision-making model, laying emphasis
on the characteristics of thorough research and logical
evaluation, selecting among possible choices based on
reason and facts.
 The basic idea of rational choice theory which is premised
on the assumption that cumulative social behavior results
from the behavior of individual actors, each of whom is
making their individual decisions, is highlighted.

150. Incremental Decision Making
Incrementalism is defined as a method for simplifying decisional
problems by restricting options to a few which deviate marginally
from precedent, then selecting that option which can command a
consensus among decision makers.
Incrementalism is somewhat less purely empirical than the scientific
method.
 The future is a large unknown and incrementalism merely
recognizes this fact of life.
Incrementalism helps to ensure control by comparing alternatives
policy choices with existing reality.

151. If a mistake is made in the choice of a particular policy, a
return to some specific point can be made.
This point is the base from which the choice was made.
Incremental policy choices will not cause sudden or drastic
changes which may disrupt organizational structure and
established processes.

152. The Mixed Scanning Model
The mixed scanning model, as outlined by Etzioni (1967,
1986),
 Synthesizes the rationalistic and incremental approach by
combining the high order, fundamental policy making
processes which considered as long term scanning,
And incremental processes which is related to fundamental
decisions which can be considered as short term scanning.

153. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
The scanning process provides a strategy for
evaluation and flexibility to scan different level
of situations makes it useful tool for decision
making in different levels of environmental
stability.

154. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
An outline of the mixed scanning strategy as follows:
A. On strategic occasions
1. List all relevant alternatives that come to mind
2.Examine briefly the alternatives and reject those that reveal a “crippling
objections”. These include:
a. Utilitarian objection to alternatives which require means that are not
available.
b. Normative objections to alternatives which violate the basic values of the
decision-makers.

155. c. Political objections to alternatives which violate the basic
values or interests of other actors whose support seems
essential for making the decision or/and implementing it.
3.For all alternatives not rejected under number two,
repeat the second step in greater but not full details.
For those alternatives remaining, repeat in fuller detail,
continue until only one alternative is left.

156. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
B. Before Implementation.
1.When possible, fragment the implementation into several
sequential steps (an administrative rule).
2.When possible, divide the commitment to implement into
several serial steps (a political rule).
3.When possible, divide the commitment of assets into several
serial steps and maintain a strategic reserve (a utilitarian rule)
4.Arrange implementation in such a way that, if possible, costly
and less reversible decisions will appear later in the process
than those which are more reversible and less costly.

157. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
5. Provide a time schedule for the additional collection and processing of
information, so that information will become available at the key turning points
of the subsequent decisions.
C. Review While Implementing.
1. Scan on a semi-encompassing level after sub-set of increments is
implemented. If they work continue to scan on level over longer periods of time
and in full over-all review still less frequency.
2. In the case that a series of increments does lead to financial problems, or
only exacerbates the problem it was meant to address, it becomes incumbent
on upper management to conduct a more thorough and comprehensive scan of
the increments taken.

158. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
3. One is reminded to scan for any potential or underlying
issues at every change or decision taken even if any “alarm
bells” don’t ring.
D. Formulate a rule for the allocation of assets and time
among the various levels of scanning.
1.It is crucial to assign “slices” of the available pie to normal
routines (when incrementing “works” )
2.Semi-encompassing reviews
3.Over-all reviews

159. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
4. Initial reviews whenever a new problem or strategy is
considered
5. A time “trigger” at set intervals, to initiate more
encompassing reviews as a preventative measure to stop a
crisis before it develops
6. An occasional review of the allocation rule in the over-all
review, and the establishment of the patterns of allocation
in the initial strategic review.

160. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
A decision problem may be uncertain for many reasons
 There may be insufficient knowledge of the events in the decision
environment that will influence the decision outcomes and the
causal relationships that exist among the aspects of the decision
problem.
Or some elements of the decision problem and its environment may
be beyond the decision-maker's control.
 Moreover, decisions are made in organizational environments that
are highly unstable due to the introduction of new technology,
rapidly changing markets, or a host of other uncertain features.

161. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
There are three major sources of uncertainty in organizations:
1.Environment –changing and complex environment engender
uncertainty.
2.Task –simple, routine tasks produce low levels of uncertainty,
where complex tasks that are not routine create high levels of
uncertainty.
3.Task interdependencies –the greater the interdependencies
among tasks, the greater the uncertainty.

162. Scanning the problem environment is a key step in any
investigative process. Two types of scanning:
Automatic and directed search.
 In directed search, individuals have intentions or
objectives, exert effort, follow learned patterns, improve
with practice, and deteriorate under high stress.
In automatic scanning, individuals continuously receive and
encode certain aspects of situations to which their attention
is directed.

163. The Mixed Scanning Cont.
Etzioni (1967) mentions three factors which aid in
the selection of the appropriate scanning levels:
1.The capacities of the participants in the problem
solving process.
2.The nature of the environment.
3.The power distribution within an organization
which affect the first two factors.

164. Transactive model
•Transactive planning model is one alternative to
comprehensive rational planning.
•The transactive planning model is based on
communicative rationality.
•This type of rationality is based on human
communication and dialogue between planners and
the people affected by planning (Kinyashi 2006;
Larsen 2003).

165. Assumptions and role of the planner
•Planners act as supporters and participants among many (Mitchell
2002)
•Equipped with technical knowledge, communicative and group-
psychological skills, planners are able to reduce the disparities
between the participants and reach consensus (Kinyashi 2006).
•Planners are the centre of systematic knowledge;
•They also mediate between different interests and communicate
information between the actors in the planning process (Larsen
2003).

166. Role of the population
The population bring a central contribution to
the planning process with their traditional
knowledge and experiences. They plan and
steer actively (Kinyashi 2006).

167. Planning process
•Planning is carried out decentrally.
• In an open atmosphere the expertise of the
planner and the experimental knowledge of the
population are combined and transformed into
shared measures (Kinyashi 2006).

168. Planning process Cont.
The planning process is characterized by:
•Interpersonal dialogue and mutual learning
•A central focus on individual and organisatorial
development
•Partnership building
•Incorporation of traditional knowledge

169. Planning process Cont.
•Planning in this model is considered less as a scientific-
technical activity than in the comprehensive rational
planning model.
•In fact, planning is considered as a ‘face-to-face’ interaction
between planners and the local population affected by
plans.
•Thus, planning is more a subjective endeavour than an
objective process.

170. Transactive model Cont.
Criticism
•Participation takes time which parts of the population do
not have, especially the poorer ones. Their interests may be
ignored;
•high participation costs;
•Sometimes the population may not be prepared to plan for
the long run and thereby to postpone short-term
satisfaction

171. Approaches to educational planning
Educational planners are responsible for designing
educational plans and policies and recommending them to
policy makers for implementation.
The plans normally propose ways that enable government
to allocate its available scarce resources to both the
education and other equally important sectors of the
economy.

172. According to Coombs (1970), Mutua and Namaswa (1992), the
educational planner is confronted with five essential questions
which must of necessary be addressed in the education
resources allocation process, the five essential questions are:
1. What should be the priority objectives and functions of the
education system and of each of its sub – system?
2. What are the best alternative or possible ways of pursuing or
achieving these various objectives and functions?

173. 3. How much of the nation’s resources should be devoted to
education at the expense of other sectors in a given period?
4. Who should provide these resources? Is it the
government, the private sector, the parents, the students,
or all of them in combination?
5. How should the total resources available to education be
allocated among the different levels, types and components
of the educational system?

174. The questions are further based on two central problems:
(a) the allocation problem and
(b) the efficiency problem.
Firstly, the educational planner is confronted with how best to
allocate the limited economic resources among the many different
competing uses to obtain the best output (allocation problem).
Secondly, the planner is faced with how best to utilize these
resources (once they are allocated) to get maximum output (the
efficiency problem).

175. The most critical problem for both the planner and the policy maker
is how to effectively strike a balance among the various competing
uses for the same scarce available resources.
To advise on education resource allocation, educational planners
have used different approaches that have been suggested for the
planning, allocation and utilization of educational resources are the
subject of this chapter.
They include the Social Demand Approach, the Manpower
Approach, the Cost Benefit – Analysis Approach, and the Systems
Approach.

176. Social Demand Approach
One of the techniques predominantly employed by planners to allocate the
scarce educational resources to the unlimited educational needs in a country is
the social demand approach.
The social demand approach to educational planning is a tool that has been in
operation and used in many countries.
Coombs (1970) uses the term to mean “the aggregate popular demand for
education, that is, the sum total of individual demands for education at a given
place and time under prevailing cultural, political and economic circumstances”
(p.37).
This approach assists government to strategize and provide education for the
citizenry.

177. The approach is concerned about the people and the
number that voluntarily demand education.
This approach helps the government to judiciously allocate
its scarce resources to the areas where they are really
needed.
It is particularly important as it facilitates in projecting what
is needed and at what time and level.
Since education is a right for all persons it is incumbent on
all people to seek basic quality education.

178. In addition to the voluntary demand for education, Coombs (1974)
asserts that government still has a responsibility to provide
education to the citizenry.
It is the overall responsibility of the government to know how many
people there are in the country and to make provision for their
educational needs.
For instance, if there are fewer classrooms and places there learners
or students to occupy them, one may say that social demand
exceeds supply.
This will create a demand – supply gap.

179. There is a demand – supply gap if educational administrators and
politicians receive complaints from disgruntled parents whose
children cannot get into schools.
The social demand approach helps the government to avoid the
embarrassment associated with illiteracy and unemployment of the
citizens.
The social demand approach is always cautious of population trends
since it is a major influence in education resource allocation.
The theory also concerns itself with the availability of both physical
and human resources at a specified period of time.

180. Population growth is one of the most influential factors in
determining the social demand for education.
Therefore, if there is a population explosion in a country,
the government must make adequate provisions in terms of
resources in order to meet the people’s educational needs.
Another factor influencing the social demand for education
is government policies, as for example, compulsory school
attendance, universal primary education, fee – free
education, school feeding programmes, etc.

181. The social demand approach is also concerned with the consumption
function.
Education is viewed as a good or service demanded and consumed
by people just like any good.
In this regard, education is provided to those who want it and has
the capacity to access it.
Furthermore, the approach emphasizes the freedom of individual
choices in acquiring education for oneself or children.
Moreover, the voluntary demand for education may be influenced by
costs of education to the student and the guardian.

182. As Thompson (1981) asserts, the social demand approach is not
without challenges.
Firstly, is very difficult to ascertain the number of people that will
demand education at a point in time.
In times of population increase, particularly in developing nations,
with inaccurate censuses, it is normally difficult to plan for education
using the social demand approach.
Due to the inaccurate figures the demand for education usually
exceeds the resources available creating a demand – supply gap.

183. It is quite difficult to curb population increase. To the rural African, a
large family size is a sigh of prosperity.
A man marries many wives in order to enlarge his family and or be
recognized as such.
In the same way, there is a growing awareness of the importance of
education to individuals.
Many children and their parents have thus increased their demand
for education which has given rise to a demand – supply gap.
A rise in demand for education without a corresponding increase in
the availability and supply of educational

184. Steps involved in the social demand
approach
Estimate the proportion of students already enrolled
in primary, secondary and higher education.
Project how many are likely to enter into the next
level of higher education.
Determine how many of the applicants should be
given admission to higher education.
Determine the cost and duration of the study.

185. Characteristics of social demand approach
The main characteristic of this approach is that the
expansion of education system is dependent on the sum
total of demand for places.
It is chiefly concerned with the consumption function
rather than the investment of it.
It forecasts the demand for education and providing
sufficient places in schools and other institutions to satisfy
that demand.

186. Another of its characteristic is the freedom of
individual choice in acquiring education for one’s
children. These choices were influenced perhaps by
some cost-benefit analysis by the parents; attitudes
and convictions about the impacts of education on
the people, which determined the social demands of
education provided people can pay for the service.

187. The social demand approach does not ignore the economic
and manpower needs of a country, because students will
study the labour market before deciding whether or not it is
worthwhile to go on with education beyond the compulsory
level.
That means learners will demand education that will assure
them of employment and a career with high returns.

188. Advantages of the social demand approach
This will enable everybody to acquire more knowledge,
skills, income and also to enjoy better living. When the
individual development is enhanced, the corporate or
national development will also be enhanced as individuals
make up every nation.
Social demand approach provides education that
guarantees a right to knowledge to everyone.
 It also tries to meet the desires of those who are interested
and understands the importance of education when the
demand for education increased.

189. The social demand approach gives freedom of
individuals in acquiring education. The underlying
assumption in this approach is that expansion of
education is beneficial to the economy and thus,
additional expenditure on education would not
create a burden too heavy to bear.
It provides education that guarantees the right to
knowledge.

190. Disadvantages of social demand approach
It ignores the larger national problem of resource allocation and
implicitly assumes that no matter how many resources go to
education this is their best use for national development.
In addition, it tends to over-stimulate popular demands, to under-
estimate costs and lead to a thin spreading of resources over many
students. This therefore, leads to reducing quality and effectiveness
to the point where education becomes a dubious investment.
It also ignores the character and pattern of manpower needed by
the economy and can readily result in producing to many of the
same type and not enough of others.

191. Social demand can be subjective and manipulated by public
authority and use to satisfy private demand for education.
Hence, the individual and private demands will benefit
more from the national subsidies on education funds.
The likelihood is that the more wealthy members of the
society and the already educationally advanced areas will
benefit more from provision of education as such groups are
usually more articulate in pushing their interests, hence
increasing educational gaps between people and regions.

192. In most countries like Uganda, adequate
financial provision is often not made for
education.
This limits the numerical development of
education sector in terms of the number of
individuals that have access to education at
different levels.

193. Manpower Approach
The manpower approach comes from the assumption that
education must satisfy the man – power needs of a nation.
In Africa, the approach was necessitated by the failure or
refusal of the expatriates to work under black people.
Hence, the approach aimed at producing local manpower or
personnel to replace the expatriates who were going back
or returning to their countries.

194. Thompson (1988) has argued that it is education that stimulates the
creation of jobs and also creates development – minded people with
the requisite skills and attitudes to promote national development.
Since it is education that provides the manpower needs of the
nation, it must also contribute to economic growth by creating jobs,
coombs (1970) has, however, cautioned that development does not
simply mean providing physical facilities but also human resources
who will harness and put these physical facilities into use.
Thompson (1988, p.134) agrees with Coombs affirming that,

195. The development of human resources through the education system
is an important pre – requisite for economic growth and good
investment of scarce resources, provided the pattern and quality of
educational output is geared to the economy’s manpower needs.
The manpower approach therefore tries to analyse the skilled
manpower needs of a nation in terms of the quantities, kinds and
levels of education needed to meet these requirements.
The manpower approach tries to provide society with the accurate
and correct number of suitably educated people to meet its
economic, social, political and other needs at different levels.

196. Source of data for manpower approach
National census
A sample survey of population
Establishment survey form
A survey of manpower in industry
Analysis of the existing situation of education and employment
Population distribution and trends implication for education and
manpower

197. Source of data Cont.
The relation of formal and non-formal education in
manpower planning
University education and high-level manpower in
educational planning
Incentives, education and manpower planning

198. Advantage of manpower approach
In the developing countries including Africa, the manpower
forecasting approach to educational planning has been popular for a
number reasons which include the following:-
Provides definite guidelines and hard data for educational planning.
Educational planners are interested in linking educational expansion to the
manpower requirements of a growing economy.
Forecasts of manpower requirements therefore provide an external
justification expansion, which then become part of the investment in national
development. Education is not, therefore, viewed as valuable in itself but as a
producer of skilled manpower

199. Economic planners believe that setting targets for growth
National product (GNP) eventually leads to the translation
of the output targets in the form of the manpower structure
required for the different levels of output.
Manpower forecasting helps to reveal the existence of shortages
and surpluses of manpower in a country. Such an imbalance
between demand for and supply of manpower is undesirable both
from the individual and social point of view. Individuals without jobs
suffer from loss of earnings, moral and status. Economic growth may
also be held by shortages of trained manpower.

200. Those responsible for manpower development, such as the ministry
of labor as well as vocational counseling, value manpower
forecasting as providing a scientific basis for their activities.
National manpower survey and projections have helped to focus
attentions on the nation’s dependence on expatriate manpower and
have therefore provided a framework for speeding up the
localization of many occupations.
Education is the “third sector in the production “so shortages may
have a considerable impact on wealth

201. The economies change rapidly which means that
labour force has to be prepared adequately to cope
with these quick developments.
The educational system grows very fast and could
get out of control
The labor market is very dynamic so planning is the
only way to avoid the occurrence of skill shortages.

202. Disadvantages of manpower approach
educational planning
Non economic approach
Rigidity
Qualification instead of quality
Vocationalization.
Passive role for education

203. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH MODEL
The systems approach in educational planning
focuses more on human/social needs rather than other
issues.
This means that the approach focuses on solving
social needs/problems by determining and
formulating related objectives.
It usually begins with the recognition of the need and
conception of an idea that meets the need.

204. THE SYSTEMS APPROACH Cont.
System approach is a process for effectively and efficiently
achieving a required outcome based on documented needs,
using logical problem-solving methodology.
It is a process by which needs are identified, and
requirements for the problem’s solution are selected from
alternatives, using methods and means which are
scientifically accepted, then accepted alternatives are
implemented, results are evaluated and required revisions
are made.

205. Systems approach is carried out in four
steps
Identify objectives;
Develop indicators for success;
Generate alternative strategies;
Develop a program.

206. First, identifying objectives is done by needs analysis, brainstorming, consulting
experts and publicizing the fact that changes are being considered in the
organization.
The is followed by developing indicators for success, which is to find measures
that can be accurately quantified and related to the objectives of forecasting
exercise and for validity.
Thirdly, the general alternative strategies entail preparation of more than one
strategy for meeting the set objectives.
And lastly, developing a program can be done by rating the alternative
strategies against one another using the indicators of success as the criteria.

207. Advantages of systems approach
Systems approach has clear and measurable
objectives especially to development of curricula.
It also helps in solving school problems, reduces
ambiguity and increases the number of options
hence, improved success.
It has influence in examining the social context of
educational administration and school organization,
as well as planners in budgetary issues.

208. It has made schools to have research laboratories for behavioral
scientists in which research is directed towards an improved
understanding of human behavior. In conducting some activities,
systems approach focuses on comparison of alternative means and
offers a basis for choosing the most appropriate course of action in a
problematic situation.
In system approach, both instructors and learners know what they
are expected to teach and to learn respectively. And what learners
can do at the end of instruction is documented.
Knowledge, skills, and behaviors expected to change are identified.

209. It also provides a model for identifying problems so that steps can
be taken for correction or improvement.
Programs can be revised based on assessment and evaluation data.
And a program can be transferable in whole or in part, providing the
new setting meets the needs of the program.
Systems approach provides the tools for out-come oriented school
management, rather than concentration on mere administrative
process. It focuses on output and integrates the administrative
processes (planning, organizational direction, co-ordination and
control) in a logical and manageable scheme.

210. It aims at meaningful analysis of organizations and
their management.
It also facilitates the interaction between
organization and its environment.
Finally, it guides manager to avoid analyzing
problems in isolation and to develop an integrated
approach.

211. Disadvantages of systems approach
Systems approach has an engineering process, which
appears to have little flexibility hence; some may
view the process as a loss of academic freedom.
It is regarded as harmful and with little return on
investment, which the result is the paying of lip
service to the process.
It could also lead to ignoring of some administrative
processes.

212. The approach does not recognize the differences in
systems, since it views the systems as part of a whole. It has
an over-conceptual of the organization.
Systems philosophy does not specify the nature of
interactions and interdependencies of each system.
Finally, systems approach is sometimes unpractical as it
cannot be easily and directly applied to practical problems.
It also lacks universality. It is a complex system

213. Cost – Benefit – Analysis
The cost – benefit – analysis approach is sometimes called
the rate of returns approach to educational planning
 It involves the analysis of relationships between education
and income.
According to Woodhall (2004), the cost – benefit – analysis
is a systematic comparison of the costs and benefits of
some form of investment in order to assess its profitability.

214. Cost- benefit analysis cont.
Any form of investment usually requires a sacrifice of
present consumption in order to secure future benefits in
the form of higher levels of output or income.
 Cost benefit – analysis then provide a means of appraising
future benefits in the light of the costs that must be
incurred in the present.
The approach is essentially concerned with the economic
benefits of education.

215. Cost-Benefit analysis Cont.
Therefore, the cost - benefit – analysis
approach is interested in how much each
level of the education system will cost
And what the benefits accruing from it will
be.

216. Cost – Benefit analysis Cont.
The CBA approach is based on the premise that
•The wages and salaries paid to workers should
closely reflect differences in their productivity
and that the variations in their productivity are
primarily the result of differences in the
amounts and the kinds of education they
received.

217. Cost -Benefit analysis cont.
The cost – benefit – analysis tells how best a country
spends its money and on what it should spends that money
on.
In addition, it stresses the need to examine alternatives and
weigh their respective costs against their benefits as best as
one can before jumping to conclusions or decisions.
For Forojalla (1993), the cost-benefit-analysis approach
enables planners to sufficiently evaluate the economic value
of a particular programme before putting it in operation.

218. Cost-Benefit analysis cont.
CBA therefore, is a tool or technique for comparing
economic costs and benefits of a project or a programme
with the view to ascertaining its profitability.
A project is considered very profitable if its marginal benefit
exceed the marginal social costs.
The cost benefit approach to education planning is
considered to be a practical way of assessing the desirability
of projects and programmes.

219. CBA Cont.
This means that prior to and before educational policies are
implemented there is always need to consider and their
alternative actions, evaluate costs and utility drives before
setting on those within the means of the country that gives
the highest ratio of befits to costs.
The cost of education to society is usually calculated against
the benefits expected to accrue taking into consideration the
extra earnings measured against the individual’s
contributions to society.

220. CBA Cont.
In contrast, the cost of education to the individual is
the cost incurred in tuition fees, uniforms, building
fund, transportation, boarding and / or hostel fees,
books, and earnings forgone, or accruing to people
due to additional education.
Private rate of returns is often subsidized by the
society through scholarships, bursaries, etc.

221. CBA Cont.
Education provision in each country should thus
always be examined against some economic criteria
so as to ensure that maximum benefit accrues to
society from an investment in education.
The underlying principle here is to produce
economically useful individuals who will be useful
both to themselves and the nation.

222. CBA Cont.
From this view, educational expenditure must be seen in
relation to their economic benefits or in relation to their
usefulness to the people and the nation as a whole.
Cost-benefit-analysis highlights on economic benefits of
education to the society (social rates of return) and to the
individual (private rates of return).
The approach estimates the total cost of investment in
education usually in terms of alternative opportunities
forgone either by the society or the individual.

223. CBA Cont.
Decisions to invest in education should thus aim at bringing
about increased production in the economic life of
individuals and the nation as a whole.
 Bogonko (1992) buttresses the point arguing that
investment in education will be worthwhile if only it leads to
a better preservation of the environment, improvement in
the earnings and spending power of people and brings
about personal thrift and the development of capital
resources.

224. CBA Cont.
Coombs (1970) thinks in similar lines and
recommends the use of the cost-benefit-analysis
approach for the allocation of national resources
among different sectors and/ or subsectors in the
education system.
 Educational planners must, therefore always think in
cost-benefit-terms.

225. CBA Cont.
That is, educational expenditure should always be viewed in relation to their economic benefits
or to their usefulness to the people and the nation.

226. CBA-Meaning of Costs in Education
•In economics, the concept of cost comes into play in the production
of goods and services.
•Economic costs can be expressed monetary or non –monetary
terms.
•In addition, economic costs usually affect a special economic
transactor who might be a producer, seller, buyer, or consumer.
•For that reason, when the owner of a factor of production offers
that factor to a produce, the cost to the owner is represented by his
consumption forgone’, while the producer incurs a precise and
measurable cost in monetary terms, made up of wages, interest,
charges, etc.

227. CBA – cost of Educ
•The cost of education refers to something of value (in
monetary terms), given up in exchange for something else,
usually goods or services.
•The education sector, as the producer of the service of
education ‘education’, also brings into play the same
concept of cost.
•The production of education usually consists of transmitting
and assimilation of, a body of knowledge and/ or certain
ways of behaviour.

228. CBA Cont.
•Output of education is often measured either by the number of
enrollments or the number of successes.
•In contrast to what happens in every day transactions relating to
goods and services, the quantity of education supplied by the
producer is not always equal to the quantity acquired by the
consumer.
•The producers of education are the educational institution, the
teachers, the public authority (ministry of education) or private
agency (in the case of private schools), families (who help to bring up
children at home), or even other non – governmental organizations.

229. CBA Cont.
•The consumers of education, on the other hand, are
the students, and their parents who are, to some
extent, ‘buyers’ of education for their children.
•From this point of view, one could thus speak of (a)
the cost of education to the agencies producing
education, mainly educational institutions and
administrative authorities; (b) the cost of education
to the consumers of education, essentially the
parents and guardians of the students.

230. CBA Cont.
•In cost-benefit-analysis, costs and benefits are
normally reduced to financial terms because money
is the only satisfactory common denominator that
can be used to relate costs directly to benefits.
•Cost-benefit-analysis is not appropriate as a tool for
analyzing benefits that are non – economic and
cannot be valued in financial terms such as national
integration or the improvement of national morality.

231. CBA Cont.
Where non – economic benefits are derived
from an educational project or programme the
current technique for evaluation is the cost.
Effectiveness analysis. The cost-benefit-analysis
is applied only to cases where measurable
economic costs and benefits are being
considered as financial costs are equal to
economic costs.

232. CBA Cont.
•In education, cost-benefit-analysis is usually concerned with
the return to expenditure on education, looked at as an
investment.
•The returns on education are either social or private in
nature.
• The private rate of returns refers to an individual’s
investment to education and this is calculated by comparing
the costs incurred and the benefits or the returns received
by the individuals as a result of his/ her education.

233. CBA Cont.
•The social rate of returns, on the other hand,
refers to the benefits accruing to society for
investing in education.
•It considers expenditure on education as a
social investment and the rate of returns is
calculated by comparing the costs and benefits
of education to society.

234. CBA- Types of Costs in Education
•The actual nature of costs could be understood only when
we understand the different concepts related to the costs of
education.
•Cost is the actual expenditure of money incurred on, or
attributable to, a specific thing or activity.
•For instance, the cost of education to a student upon
graduation could include two other types of costs often
referred to as notional or apparent costs and actual costs.

235. CBA Cont.
•For understanding these concepts of costs, lets us once
more take a hypothetical case.
•On an inquiry from a student as to how much it would cost
him/ her upon graduation, the student specifies the cost to
be about UGX 20,000,000/=.
•This cost is referred to as notional or apparent cost because
upon graduation the student realized that the total cost
incurred was UGX 25,000,000/= when he/she completed
his/her studies. This is called the actual cost of education
(which included private costs).

236. CBA Cont.
The total costs of education can be classified mainly into
two:
(a) Private or Individual Costs and
(b) Public or Social Costs.
These refer to cost to individual students and their families
and costs to society.
Each of these can further be divided into: (i) Direct and (ii)
Indirect (iii) Opportunity Costs.

237. CBA Cont.
Private or Individual Costs: Private costs of education are
costs of education incurred by a learner or his/her parents/
guardians.
These costs concern individuals in families and represent
costs which the individuals and their families must bear in
return for the education received.
Examples of private costs are tuition fees, cost if manuals
and books, transport, excluding the value of scholarships

238. CBA Cont.
Public or Social Costs: These costs concern society and
refer to such costs as are borne out as a result of all
education and training activities in a society at a given
point in time. Costs incurred at the institutional level
(government, private or mixed are called public or social
costs of education.
Public costs relate to the financing of education by
Government through taxes, loans, and other public
revenues.

239. Table 1 shows the components of social
and public Costs of education.
Social Costs Private Costs
Direct Costs  Teachers’ salaries.
 Other recurrent expenditure
value of scholarships on
goods and services.
 Expenditure on books, etc.
 Imputed rent
 Fees
 Books
 Travel costs
 Etc
Indirect Costs  Earnings forgone  Earnings forgone

240. CBA Cont.
Direct Costs: These are those costs of education that are directly visible.
•They include all money expenditure incurred on different items by the student.
•Direct costs are all the expenses that can be separately identified and charged as
part of the cost of a product, service, or department.
• Typical direct costs include items such as instructional and other programme
materials printed, fuel, oil and repairs of vehicles used for home to school
transportation, in-house equipment repairs, field trips, fees for tuition, other
fees and charges, purchase of books, stationery, uniforms. Hostel and transport
expenses.

241. CBA Cont.
Indirect Costs: Indirect costs are those costs of
education that cannot be directly charged to a
particular programme, but are attributed to services,
which are essential to operate the program.
Such services include, but are not limited to,
accounting, purchasing, payroll preparation.
Personnel management, purchasing. Warehousing,
and centralized data processing services.

242. CBA Cost.
Opportunity Cost: Opportunity cost is a concept that is frequently
misunderstood.
This concept emanates from the wants of human scarce resources are unable to
satisfy the limitless wants of human beings.
This warrants us to use the available resources selectively in such a way as to
satisfy some of our unlimited wants.
This necessarily involves the making of choices among the various competing
alternatives.
If one has only UGX 50,000/= which can only buy either a shirt or a pair of shoes
but not both, then one will be compelled to make a choice to buy the shirt and
forgo the pair of shoe or vice versa.

243. CBA Cont.
•This means that then one can only own a shirt at the expense of the pair of
shoes or own the pair of shoes at the expense of the shirt.
• In choosing one item over the other means that one will have to forgo the other
item.
•Opportunity cost is, then value of the forgone alternative where choice has been
made.
• Form this explanation, we can say that opportunity costs are everywhere, due
to scarcity and the necessity of choosing.
•Opportunity cost is not what you choose when you make a choice – rather it is
the value of what you did not choose in making the choice.

244. CBA Cont.
•Opportunity cost, therefore, is the value of the alternative
forgone –the value given up in order to gain something else.
•For example, the opportunity cost of pursuing a Masters of
Education degree is the money that could have been earned
if that individual were engaged in some form of work
instead.
•In other words, the individual has lost two years of salary
while obtaining his/her degree. However, the individual
hopes to earn more during his/ her career, due to the higher
education.

245. CBA Cont.
Consider another concrete but hypothetical situation.
Suppose one was working in a Tea Producing Company and by
offering his/ her services was paid UGX. 1,000,000/= per month.
Had s/he not joined the Tea Company, and joined a Textile Firm
instead with a monthly salary of UGX. 500,000/=, it means that
the value in the next best alternative use would have been UGX.
500,000/=. According to the economist, the opportunity cost for
this individual would be the UGX. 500,000/= forgone while
keeping him/her employed in the Tea Company.

246. CBA- Advantages and Disadvantages
•Cost-benefit-analysis provides vital links between education and labour
market.
•It gives information concerning the costs of different kinds of education
and the relative costs of the different categories of manpower.
•It provide information in relation to the economic consequences of
alternative educational policies.
•It may suggest ways of increasing the profitability of education. This can
be done by increasing benefits or lowering costs.
• It focuses attention on the problem of choosing between alternative
investment patterns.

247. CBA- Disadvantages
•The earning differentials reflects among individuals cannot be used as a measure of pure
benefits of education.
•It does not often take into account the socio – economic background of people, sex, nature of
occupation, influence, motivation, drive, natural ability.
•It takes into account economic benefits and not the non- economic benefits of education

248. The Synthetic (Eclectic) Approach
This approach is a synthesis of the various
approaches. It draws on the benefits of the
other three approaches. This approach affords
educational planners the benefits of each of the
approaches earlier mentioned

250. CONCLUSION
Educational planning can be defined as the process of setting out in advance,
strategies, policies, procedures, programmes and standards through which an
educational objective (or set of objectives) can be achieved.
Educational planning is a detailed and systematic process, it just does not
happen by chance.
It sets out in advance. It is a forecast of what duties, assignments and tasks
are to take pace in the future.
It is goal-oriented: it is directed at achieving a set educational objective.