The document discusses various aspects of leadership including definitions, types of leaders, leadership styles, theories of leadership, and approaches to leadership. It defines leadership as the ability to influence others towards achieving goals and discusses that leaders can be those in authority, those with charisma or ability, or intellectual leaders. It also outlines different leadership styles like autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire and discusses theories like trait theory, transformational theory, and transactional theory.

1. Leadership
Dr. Satish Kumar, Asst. Prof. in Education, School of Education, LPU
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2. What is leadership?
Leading people
Influencing people
Commanding people
Guiding people

3. Who is a Leader?
• A Leader is someone in authority to lead others
to accomplish a goal(s).
• A leader needs to be able to motivate others to
accomplish a goal(s) while at the same time
encourage others to work toward their own
professional goals.

4. Leadership
 Leadership is the art of motivating a group of
people to act towards achieving a common goal.
 The process of encouraging and helping others to
work enthusiastically towards objectives .
 Alan Keith stated that, "Leadership is ultimately
about creating a way for people to contribute to
making something extraordinary happen.

5. Leadership:- Meaning and definition
Leadership has been defined in different ways by
different set of scholars. Leadership is defined as the
ability to influence a group towards the achievement
of a vision or set of goals.
- Leadership transforms potential into reality. It is the
ultimate act which brings to success all the potential
that is in an organization and its people”.
- Chester Bernard gave a new definition of leadership
and stated that, “leadership is the ability of a superior
to influence the behaviour of subordinates and
persuade them to follow a particular course of
action”.

6. Leadership
• John Newstrom and Keith Davis have
described leadership as “the process of
influencing and supporting others to work
enthusiastically toward achieving
objectives.” It is a process whereby one
individual influences other group members
toward the attainment of defined group or
organizational goals.”

7. The essence of leadership
• Leadership refers to ability of one individual to influence
others.
• The influence is exercised to change the behaviour of
others.
• Change of behaviour is caused with an objective of
achieving a shared goal.
• The person influencing others(leader) possesses a set of
qualities or characteristics with which he or she to
influence others
• Leadership is a group phenomenon. It involves
interaction between two or more people.

8. Leadership involves
• • Establishing a clear vision,
• • Sharing that vision with others so that they
will follow,
• • Providing the information, knowledge and
methods to realize that vision, and
• • Coordinating and balancing the conflicting
interests of all members and stakeholders.

9. Types of Leaders
• Leader by the position achieved
• Leader by personality, charisma
• Leader by moral example
• Leader by power held
• Intellectual leader
• Leader because of ability to accomplish
things

10. Leadership styles
• Leadership style is the manner and approach of
providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating
people.
• Leaders vary their styles. A leader is not strictly follow
one or another style. Most leaders use multiple styles;
one style, however, becomes the dominant one.
• Positive Leaders use rewards to motivate employees.
• Negative Leaders use penalties with employees. These
leaders act as domineering. Negative penalties include:
days off, without pay, reprimanding in front of others,
assigning unpleasant job tasks.

11. Types of Leadership
Laissez-faire
leaders

12. • Autocratic Leaders:
• Autocratic leaders are an excessive form
of transactional leadership, where a
leader makes use of high levels of power
over his team members. People within
the team are given few opportunities for
making suggestions, even if these would
be in the team's or organizations interest.

13. • Bureaucratic Leaders:
• Bureaucratic leaders work by the book, ensuring
that their staffs follow procedures accurately.
• This is a very right approach for work involving
serious safety risks (such as working with
machinery, with toxic substances or at heights) or
where large sums of money are involved (such as
cash process).

14. • Charismatic Leaders:
• A charismatic leaders style can appear similar to a
transformational leadership style, in that the
leader bring in huge doses of enthusiasm into his
team, and is very energetic in driving others
forward.
• Charismatic leadership carries great
responsibility, and needs longterm commitment
from the leader.

15. • Democratic Leaders:
• A democratic leader makes the final decision but
he invites other members to contribute to the
decision-making process, which increases job
satisfaction by involving team members and also
helps to develop people’s skills.
• Team members feel in control of their own
destiny, and are motivated to work smart.

16. • Laissez-Faire Leaders:
• The policy of leaving things to take their own
course, without interfering.
• They known as “Delegate leader” offer little or
no guidance to group members and leave
decision-making up to group members.
• While this style can be effective in situations
where group members are highly qualified in an
area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined
roles and a lack of motivation

17. Approaches to Leadership:
Trait,
Transformational,
Transactional,
Value based,
Cultural,
Psychodynamic and
Charismatic

18. THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
• In influencing the people in the organization towards the goals of the
organization, there have been various approaches adopted by different set of
leaders, as one model may not be suitable for different organizations with
different set of objectives.
• Some of the theories of leadership ranging from conventional theories to
contemporary theories have been dealt with over here, the chief of them being the
following:
 Great Man Theory/Trait Theory
 Behavioural Theories
 Contingency/Situational Theories
 Transactional Theory of Leadership
 Transformational Theory of Leadership
 value based, cultural, psychodynamic and charismatic

19. Great Man Theory/Trait Theory of
Leadership
• Some of the leaders in the history have always been
identified as strong leaders based on the qualities or
traits that they display.
• Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Margaret Thatcher,
Nelson Mandela, Narayana Murthy of Infosys, Apple’s
Cofounder Steve Jobs etc. has been identified, based on
the traits that they displayed.

20. • In the beginning, the assumption behind trait
theory was that, “leaders are born and not
made’.
• This concept was popularly known as the “Great
Man Theory” of leadership.
• The great man theory was originally proposed by
Thomas Carlyle in 1949 and the assumption
behind this theory is that “great leaders will arise,
when there is great need”.
• In the period of 1960s, various research studies
were made on the traits of a leader and about 80
traits that a leader could display was identified.

21. Traits
Adaptable to situations
Alert to social environment
Ambitious & achievement oriented
Assertive
Cooperative
Decisive
Reliable
Dominant desire to influence others
Energetic (high activity level)
Persistent
Self-confident
Tolerant to stress
Willing to assume responsibility
Clever (Intelligent)
Conceptually skilled
Creative
Diplomatic and tactful
Fluent in speaking
Knowledgeable about group task
Organised (administrative ability)
Persuasive
Socially-skilled

22. Transformational Theory of
Leadership
• Transformational leadership is also equated to an extent with the
charismatic leadership.
• In order to bring transformation in the followers or employees
interest and reshape their capacity, one critical component that has
been considered essential is the charisma of the leader.
• In this form of leadership, a leader inspires her/his followers to
transcend their own self-interests for the betterment of the
organization.
• Transformational leaders pay attention to the developmental needs
and concerns of the followers, and inspire followers to give a new
outlook for the old problems and thus motivate the followers
towards achievement of the goals of the organization, by giving
them new perspective.

23. • According to Bass and Riggio, there are four
dimensions to the transformational theory of
leadership
• Idealized Influence (II),
• Inspirational Motivation (IM),
• Intellectual Stimulation (IS),
• Individualized Consideration (IC).

24. • Idealized Influence (II): In this form of
leadership, the leaders act as role models for
their subordinates and they exhibit high morals
and ethical standards.
• Inspirational Motivation (IM): In this
dimension of leadership, leaders inspire their
subordinates in various ways and give meaning
to their work and bring new challenges and
enthusiasm.

25. • Intellectual Stimulation (IS): In this form, the
leaders stimulate the intellectual ability of their
followers. That is, through new approaches, the
leaders try to stimulate the way of thinking of
their subordinates and thus, raise the creativity in
them and promote intelligence, rationality and
problem solving skills
• Individualized Consideration (IC): The
leaders, under this dimension, pay more
attention to the individual needs of development
of the subordinates so as to achieve success

26. Transactional Theory of Leadership
• The transactional theory of leadership was first discussed
by Max Weber in 1947 and was later developed by Bernard
M Bass in 1981. There are several assumptions that underlie
the transactional theory, which are as follows:
 People perform their best when the chain of command is
definite and clear.
 Workers are motivated by rewards and punishments.
 Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the
primary goal of the followers.
 Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that
expectations are met.

27. • Under the transactional theory of leadership, the leaders
guide or motivate their followers in the direction of
established goals by clarifying role and task
requirements. The characteristic features exhibited by
transactional leaders are as follows:
• Contingent Reward: The leader links the goals of the
organization to rewards and clearly specifies and
expectations , provides the needed resources and set
SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and
timely) goals for the subordinates

28. • Management by Exception (Active): The leader actively
monitors the performance of the subordinates, watches and
searches for deviations from rules and standards, and take
corrective actions to prevent mistakes
• Management by Exception (Passive): In terms of passive
management, a leader intervenes only if standards are not
met and even use punishments for poor performances
• Laissez-Faire: In this for, the leader gives an
environment to subordinates, where they can take
decisions. In this form, the leader himself abandon from
responsibilities and avoids making decisions, due to which
the followers lack the direction.

29. Value-Based
Leadership

30. • Values-based Leaders create values-
based culture that deliver predictable and
positive results.
• Values-based leadership is the idea that
leaders should follow values for direction
and motivation.
• Values-based leadership philosophy
asserts that people are mostly motivated
by values and live according to these
beliefs.

31. Are You a Values-Based Leader?
• Does your style of leadership reflect a selfless
attitude?
• Are you putting the needs of others first, or are you
using your position and resources for your own
gain?
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32. Example of Values
• Integrity
• Humility
• Compassion
• Purpose-driven
• Courage
• Self-discipline
• Gratitude

33. • As a philosophy, values-based leadership
assumes that an organisation based on values is
likely to be more flexible and productive.
• Leaders will make better choices feeling more
comfortable to act upon them
• Leaders are likely to build better, more trusting,
less stressful relationships with followers
• A person's values are at the core of their sense of
identity. So by definition, authentic leaders will
always act from their highest values.

34. Psychodynamic Approach
•The Psychodynamic Approach to
leadership focuses on the dynamics of
human behavior, and the idea that if we
study what affects a person’s behavior, we
can understand how he or she functions
and why they react or act in certain ways,
and in turn use that information to be
better leaders and followers.

35. Psychodynamic Approach
• It is rooted in the ideas of traditional psychoanalysis
and the studies of Freud.
• The Psychodynamic Approach is important to
leadership in the workplace for two reasons.
• One, if a leader is successfully introspective and knows
their characteristics and inner drivers, they will be in
tune to their emotional responses and can guide their
actions accordingly and more successfully.
• Additionally, if they are more aware of their followers’
emotional reactions and pattern responses, they may be
able to tailor their leadership style according to their
followers.

36. Psychodynamic Approach
• We are all a result of our past experiences. Our
personalities are developed through our experiences,
in particular, shaped throughout the early stages of
our lives. These early experiences help to create our
response patterns to others and contribute to the
creation of different relationship themes.
• There is an explanation behind every one of our
actions. Even if our actions aren’t rational, a rational
and logical explanation behind the actions exists.

37. Psychodynamic Approach
• Everyone is different, has a unique personality, and has
different motivational drivers.
• The main concept within the approach is personality,
suggesting that childhood experiences affect the
different characteristics that people obtain.
• While there have been attempts to describe leadership
from a psychodynamic lens, all emphasize the
importance of leaders becoming aware of their own
personality type and the personalities of their
followers.

38. How does the psychodynamic
approach work?
• The fundamental goal of the psychodynamic approach
is to raise the awareness of leaders and followers to
their own personality types and the significance of
those types on work and relationships.
• The approach usually includes the cooperation of both
followers and the leader.
• The leaders and followers are better able to tolerate
one another.
• The approach works because people become aware of
each others' types and thus the differences are brought
into the open where people can discus them

39. Cultural leadership
• We are living in multicultural societies
nowadays, so as we are finding persons from
different cultural backgrounds in one
organization.
• So its important for the leaders to have
developed insight into the cultural issues, as
these are helpful to understand basic human
personality and to influence them in better
ways.

40. Cultural leadership
• Kentucky pointed the new system in leadership
i.e. Cultural Leadership
• Cultural Leadership is working in two ways;
• 1. To cater the cultural needs of the people by
giving stress over their cultural aspects to
connect with their traditions.
• Organizing various cultural programmes,
celebrating different festivals, language day,
variety in food etc.

41. Cultural leadership
• 2. To establish a organizational culture based
on values, vision and mission of the
organisation.
• Uniformity is also a part of organistaional
culture where chain of institutions and units
are run by same firm or organisation.
• McDonalds, KFC, DPS etc.

42. Behavioural Theory
In contrast with trait theory, behavioural theory
attempts to describe leadership in terms of what
leaders do, while trait theory seeks to explain
leadership on the basis of what leaders are. Leadership
according to this approach is the result of effective role
behaviour. Leadership is shown by a person’s acts more
than by his traits. This is an appropriate new research
strategy adopted by Michigan Researchers in the sense
that the emphasis on the traits is replaced by the
emphasis on leader behaviour (which could be
measured).

43. Behavioural Theory
Theories proposing that specific behaviors
differentiate leaders from non leaders.
• Pattern of actions used by different individuals
determines leadership potential
• Examples
– Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire
– Michigan Studies: Employee centered versus task
centered

44. Behavioural Theory
– Theories that attempt to isolate behaviors that
differentiate effective leaders from ineffective
leaders
– Behavioral studies focus on identifying critical
behavioral determinants of leadership that, in
turn, could be used to train people to become
leaders

45. Behavioual Leadership Studies
• The Ohio State Studies sought to identify
independent dimensions of leader behavior
– Initiating structure
– Consideration
• The University of Michigan Studies sought to
identify the behavioral characteristics of leaders
related to performance effectiveness
– Employee oriented
– Production oriented

46. 11–46
Ohio State Studies

47. © 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 11–47
University of Michigan Studies

48. Models of
leadership

49. THE MANAGERIAL GRID
BY ROBERT BLAKE & JANE MOUTON

50. Introdution
The managerial grid model (1964) is style-leadership
model developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane
Mouton.
Robert Blake – Professor of Psychology, University of Texas
Jane Mouton – Management theorist, A former student of Blake
This model originally identified five different
leadership styles based on the concern for people
and the concern for production.

51. Introdution
3 basic issues to work upon in an organization –
Production,
People,
Boss- Subordinate Relationship

52. Managerial grid
Managerial Grid is a graphical presentation with
concern for production as the x-axis and concern for
people as the y-axis
The scales range from 1(for lowest priority) to 9 (for
highest priority)
The different positions on the graph indicate different
leadership styles
Based on 2 behavioral dimensions:-
Concern for production - concrete objectives,
organizational efficiency and high productivity
Concern for people - needs of team members, their
interests, and areas of personal development

53. Managerial grid

55. 5 major managerial positions:-
 (9,1)
 (1,9)
 (1,1)
 (5,5)
 (9,9)

56. 9,1 – “Dictatorial”
 Emphasis on production
 People are mere tools to meet the ends
 Autocracy, strict rules and procedures, punishment
 High labor turnover is inevitable
 Performance is short-lived

57. 1,9 – “Country club”
 High concern for people
 Assumes that if people are happy and harmonious,
production will take care of itself
 Work environment is happy, comfortable, relaxed and
friendly
 Production suffers due to lack of direction and control

58. 1,1 – “Impoverished”
 Low concern for both production and people
 Minimum exertion for effort
 Focus on survival
 Focus on not being held responsible for failures
 Results in disorganization, dissatisfaction and disharmony
 Inefficient operations

59. 5,5 – “Middle of the road”
 Traditions and past practices are analyzed for
future planning
 No arbitrary risks
 Average performance
 Neither production nor people needs are met

60. 9,9 – “Team Management”
 High concern for both production and people
 Based on mutual trust, respect and understanding
 People are made to believe they are constructive parts
of the organization
 Increased satisfaction, motivation and production

61. Contingency Theories
Contingency Theories
– Fiedler Model
 Cognitive Resource Theory

62. Contingency Theories
While trait and behavior theories do help
us understand leadership, an important
component is missing: the environment
in which the leader exists.
Contingency Theory deals with this
additional aspect of leadership
effectiveness studies.

63. Fiedler Model
• The theory that effective groups depend upon a proper match
between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and
the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to
the leader.
• There are basically three steps in the model
1) Identifying Leadership Style
2) Defining the Situation
3) Matching leaders and situations

64. 1) Identifying Leadership Style
• Fiedler believes a key factor in leadership
success is the individual’s basic leadership
style
So he created the Least Prefer Co-worker
(LPC) Questionnaire
• LPC:-An instrument that tells to measure
whether a person is task or relationship
oriented

65. Cont…
 If the low LPC score then the person is task
oriented
 If the high LPC score then the person is
relationship oriented

66. Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale
Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unfriendly
Rejecting 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Accepting
Tense 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Relaxed
Cold 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Warm
Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Hostile
Boring 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Interesting
Quarrelsome 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Harmonious
Gloomy 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cheerful
Open 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Closed
Backbiting 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Loyal
Untrustworthy 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Trustworthy
Considerate 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Inconsiderate
Nasty 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Nice
Agreeable 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Disagreeable
Insincere 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Sincere
Kind 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unkind

67. Scoring
• Your final score is the total of the numbers you
circled on the 18 scales
57 or less = Low LPC (task motivated)
58-63 = Middle LPC (socio-independent leaders,
self directed and not overly concerned with the
task or with how others view them)
64 or above = High LPC (motivated by
relationships)

68. 2) Defining the Situation
• Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that
define the key situational factors
• 1. Leader-member relations:
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect,
members have in the leader
2. Task structure:
The degree to which the job assignments are
procedurized
3. Position Power:
The degree of influence a leader has over power
variables such as hiring, firing, promotion etc.

69. 3) Matching leaders and Situations
• After knowing the leadership style through LPC and
defining all the situations, we will chose the leader
who will fit for the situation.
Two ways in which to improve leader effectiveness
1) Change the leader to fit the situation
2) Change the situation to fit the leader

71. Hersey & Balanchard’s Situational
Theory
• This model is developed by Paul Hersey &
Ken Blanchard. This theory has been used by
nearly 500 companies. It has been widely
accepted in all the military services.
• This theory focuses on the followers.
Successful leadership is achieved by selecting
the right leadership style, which is contingent
on the level of followers readiness or maturity.

72. • Situational leadership uses the same two
leadership dimensions that Fiedler identified:
Task and relationship behavior.
• However Hersey & Balanchard go a step
further by considering each as either high or
low and then combining them into 4 specific
leader behaviors; telling, selling, participating,
delegating.

73. • Telling (high-task-low relationship): the leader
defines roles and tells people what, how,
when, and where to do various tasks. It
emphasizes direct behavior.
• Selling (high-task high relationship): the leader
provides both supportive as well as directive
behavior.

74. • Participating (low-task-high relationship): the
leader and follower share in decision making,
with the main role of the leader being
facilitating and communicating.
• Delegating (low-task-low relationship): the
leader provides little direction and support.

75. • The final component in Hersey & Balanchard’s
theory is defining 4 stages of follower readiness:
• 1. R1: people are both unable and unwilling to
take responsibility to do something. They are
neither competent nor confident.
• 2. R2: people are unable but willing to do the
necessary job tasks. They are motivated but
currently lack the appropriate skills.
• 3. R3: people are able but unwilling to do what
the leader wants.
• 4. R4: people are both able and willing to do
what is asked of them.

76. • According to Ken Blanchard, "Four
combinations of competence and commitment
make up what we call 'development level.'"
• D1 – Enthusiastic Beginner: Low competence
with high commitment
• D2 – Disillusioned Learner: Low/middling
competence with low commitment
• D3 – Capable but Cautious Performer: High
competence with low/variable commitment
• D4 – Self-reliant Achiever: High competence
with high commitment

78. Tri-Dimension model
• Tri-Dimension model or 3-D Model of
leadership has been developed by William
James Reddin also known as Bill
Reddin (May 10, 1930 – June 20, 1999).
• Three-dimensional axes represent
• Task-orientation,
• Relationship-orientation and
• Effectiveness

79. Tri-Dimension model
• By adding an effectiveness dimension to the
task-oriented and relationship-oriented
behavior dimensions, Reddin has integrated
the concept of leadership styles with the
situational demand of a specific environment

80. • Task orientation (TO) is defined as the
extent to which a manager directs his/her
subordinate’s efforts toward goal
attainment. Planning, organizing and
controlling characterize it.
• Relationship orientation (RO) is defined
as the extent to which a manager has
personal relationships. It is characterized by
mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas
and suggestions and their feelings.

81. • Effectiveness is defined as the extent to
which a manager is successful in his
position.
• When the style of a leader is
appropriate to a given situation, it is
termed as effective. When the style is
inappropriate to a given situation, it is
termed as ineffective.

82. • Effectiveness is defined as the extent to
which a manager is successful in his
position.
• When the style of a leader is
appropriate to a given situation, it is
termed as effective. When the style is
inappropriate to a given situation, it is
termed as ineffective.

84. • The Separated Manager is the one who is
engaged in correcting deviations. He is the
person who formulates the rules and policies
and imposes these on others.
• The Related Manager is the one who likes to
work with others and see an organization as a
social system where everyone works together.
He does not worry about the time and accepts
others as they are and do not try to change
them.

85. • The Dedicated Manager is the one who is
task oriented and is only concerned with the
production. He does not like to mix up with
the subordinates and cannot work without
power and responsibility.
• The Integrated Manager is the one who
mixes up with the subordinates and facilitate
two way communication. His major emphasis
is on building a strong teamwork and effective
communication network.

88. Less effective or ineffective leadership styles
• 1. Deserter- Such leaders have low task and low people
orientation .
• 2. Missionary- Such leaders believe in easy life, avoid
conflicts and do not take initiative.
• 3. Autocrat- Such leaders have no concern for others.
They believe in suppressing, demand obedience of
authority and rely more on negative motivation.
• 4. Compromiser- Such leaders use a high task and
relationship orientation in situations that may not require
high concentration. They are either poor decision-makers
or avoid making decisions completely.

89. Effective leadership styles
• 1. Bureaucrat- Such a leader has high orientation toward
organizational rules and regulations.
• 2. Developer-- They trust people, relies on high
relationship orientation and less task orientation. They
believe in commitment to work, openness, freedom to
act, self-expression and development of subordinates.
• 3. Benevolent autocrat- They are high task and less
people oriented. They adopt positive economic
motivation
• 4. Executive--They have a high task and high relationship
orientation in a situation where such behavior is
appropriate. They emphasize on team management.

91. The Leader-Member Exchange Theory
LMX
Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory

92. • In their seminal article, Fred Dansereau, George Graen, and
William Haga (Dansereau, et al. 1975).
• As a manager, it's not always right to treat everyone on your
team in the same way.
• This situation is at the heart of the Leader-Member Exchange
Theory.
• This theory, also known as LMX or the Vertical Dyad
Linkage Theory, explores how leaders and managers develop
relationships with team members; and it explains how those
relationships can contribute to growth.

93. • The theory states that all relationships
between managers and subordinates go
through three stages. These are:
• Role-Taking
• Role-Making
• Routinization

94. • 1. Role-Taking
• Role-taking occurs when team
members first join the group.
Managers use this time to assess new
members' skills and abilities.

95. • 2. Role-Making
• New team members then begin to work on projects
and tasks as part of the team. In this stage, managers
generally expect that new team members will work
hard, be loyal and prove trustworthy as they get used
to their new role.
• The theory says that, during this stage, managers sort
new team members (often subconsciously) into one
of two groups.

96. • In-Group - if team members prove themselves loyal,
trustworthy and skilled, they're put into the In-Group. This
group is made up of the team members that the manager
trusts the most. Managers give this group most of their
attention, providing challenging and interesting work, and
offering opportunities for additional training and
advancement.
• Out-Group - if team members betray the trust of the
manager, or prove that they're unmotivated or incompetent,
they're put into the Out-Group. This group's work is often
restricted and unchallenging. Out-Group members tend to
have less access to the manager, and often don't receive
opportunities for growth or advancement.

97. • 3. Routinization
• During this last phase, routines between team
members and their managers are established.
• In-Group team members work hard to maintain the
good opinion of their managers, by showing trust,
respect, empathy, patience, and persistence.