This document provides an overview of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as any system composed of physical, chemical, and biological processes within a space-time unit of any magnitude. Ecosystems can be divided into biomes characterized by climate, landscape, or vegetation. Biomes contain various habitats and are home to populations, communities, and food webs. Energy flows through ecosystems via food chains and pyramids. The document also discusses different types of ecosystems such as forests, tundra, and rainforests, and how they are structured and function.
Ecological succession is the process of change in species composition of an ecological community over time. There are two main types: primary succession, which occurs in areas without previous life, and secondary succession, which occurs after a disturbance in an existing ecosystem. Succession will continue through different stages as species colonize an area and change the environment, eventually reaching a climax community that is stable and able to reproduce itself until the next disturbance. Humans can impact ecological succession through activities like agriculture that clear land and disrupt existing ecosystems.
Biodiversity hotspots around the world and in indiaAbhilash Panju
This document discusses biodiversity hotspots around the world and in India. It defines biodiversity hotspots as regions with significant biodiversity that are threatened with destruction. 36 hotspots have been identified globally based on having at least 1,500 vascular plant species and having lost over 70% of original habitat. Two key hotspots in India are the Indo-Burma region spanning parts of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and China, and the Western Ghats range along India's west coast, both home to many endemic species. The document outlines various conservation efforts focused on protecting hotspots.
Animal communication - Dr. Jeni Padua
Intraspecific Communication
Interspecific communication
Types:
Visual Communication
Auditory Communication
Chemical Communication
Tactile Communication
Electrical Communication
Endangered and Extinct Plants and AnimalsSanjam Kanwar
The document discusses several key threats to biodiversity: habitat loss due to deforestation and urbanization, global warming, introduction of exotic species, and overexploitation of species. It provides examples of each threat and argues that protecting habitats, enforcing anti-poaching laws, educating youth, and individual actions like reducing energy usage can help address these threats and protect endangered plants and animals. Biodiversity is important for human health and future advancement, so saving endangered species from extinction is crucial.
A community is a complex group of individuals interacting and sharing an environment.
Communities can be characterized by their structure (the types and numbers of species present) and dynamics (how communities change over time).
The document discusses biodiversity hotspots, which are regions with high levels of endemic species that have experienced significant habitat loss. It outlines two biodiversity hotspots in India - the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. The Eastern Himalayas spans parts of India, Nepal and Bhutan, containing over 10,000 plant species and 163 globally threatened animal species. The Western Ghats is a mountain range along India's western coast, home to over 6000 plant species of which 3000 are endemic, as well as 450 bird and 140 mammal species over 60% of which are found nowhere else. Biodiversity hotspots are important for supporting global life and ecosystem services, though the concept has also received some criticism.
This document discusses ecological efficiency and the transfer of energy through trophic levels in an ecosystem. It defines ecological efficiency and explains how only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next based on the "ten percent law". Various types of efficiencies are also defined that quantify energy transfer from prey production to consumer production. Applications of understanding ecological efficiency include improving agricultural practices and livestock management to maximize energy utilization.
Sikkim, India is a biodiversity hotspot located in the Eastern Himalayas, with 26% of India's total biodiversity despite being only 0.2% of the country's area. It contains a wide variety of flora and fauna ranging from tropical to alpine ecosystems, including over 4,000 plant species and representing 30% of Indian bird species. Rare animals found in Sikkim include the snow leopard, red panda, Himalayan black bear, blue sheep, and shapi. The red panda has been declared the state animal of Sikkim.
Ecological succession is the process of change in species composition of an ecological community over time. There are two main types: primary succession, which occurs in areas without previous life, and secondary succession, which occurs after a disturbance in an existing ecosystem. Succession will continue through different stages as species colonize an area and change the environment, eventually reaching a climax community that is stable and able to reproduce itself until the next disturbance. Humans can impact ecological succession through activities like agriculture that clear land and disrupt existing ecosystems.
Biodiversity hotspots around the world and in indiaAbhilash Panju
This document discusses biodiversity hotspots around the world and in India. It defines biodiversity hotspots as regions with significant biodiversity that are threatened with destruction. 36 hotspots have been identified globally based on having at least 1,500 vascular plant species and having lost over 70% of original habitat. Two key hotspots in India are the Indo-Burma region spanning parts of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and China, and the Western Ghats range along India's west coast, both home to many endemic species. The document outlines various conservation efforts focused on protecting hotspots.
Animal communication - Dr. Jeni Padua
Intraspecific Communication
Interspecific communication
Types:
Visual Communication
Auditory Communication
Chemical Communication
Tactile Communication
Electrical Communication
Endangered and Extinct Plants and AnimalsSanjam Kanwar
The document discusses several key threats to biodiversity: habitat loss due to deforestation and urbanization, global warming, introduction of exotic species, and overexploitation of species. It provides examples of each threat and argues that protecting habitats, enforcing anti-poaching laws, educating youth, and individual actions like reducing energy usage can help address these threats and protect endangered plants and animals. Biodiversity is important for human health and future advancement, so saving endangered species from extinction is crucial.
A community is a complex group of individuals interacting and sharing an environment.
Communities can be characterized by their structure (the types and numbers of species present) and dynamics (how communities change over time).
The document discusses biodiversity hotspots, which are regions with high levels of endemic species that have experienced significant habitat loss. It outlines two biodiversity hotspots in India - the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. The Eastern Himalayas spans parts of India, Nepal and Bhutan, containing over 10,000 plant species and 163 globally threatened animal species. The Western Ghats is a mountain range along India's western coast, home to over 6000 plant species of which 3000 are endemic, as well as 450 bird and 140 mammal species over 60% of which are found nowhere else. Biodiversity hotspots are important for supporting global life and ecosystem services, though the concept has also received some criticism.
This document discusses ecological efficiency and the transfer of energy through trophic levels in an ecosystem. It defines ecological efficiency and explains how only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next based on the "ten percent law". Various types of efficiencies are also defined that quantify energy transfer from prey production to consumer production. Applications of understanding ecological efficiency include improving agricultural practices and livestock management to maximize energy utilization.
Sikkim, India is a biodiversity hotspot located in the Eastern Himalayas, with 26% of India's total biodiversity despite being only 0.2% of the country's area. It contains a wide variety of flora and fauna ranging from tropical to alpine ecosystems, including over 4,000 plant species and representing 30% of Indian bird species. Rare animals found in Sikkim include the snow leopard, red panda, Himalayan black bear, blue sheep, and shapi. The red panda has been declared the state animal of Sikkim.
Invasive species are non-native organisms that cause harm to the environment, economy, or human health. They spread rapidly and outcompete native species due to a lack of natural predators. Common modes of transmission include shipping, boats, wood/soil transport, release of pets/ornamentals, and climate change. Invasive species directly prey on, outcompete for resources, or introduce diseases to native wildlife. They can also indirectly impact ecosystems by altering habitats and food webs. Several invasive plant and animal species from around the world are provided as examples, including their origin, spread, and impacts.
The document discusses the 17 mega biodiverse countries identified by Conservation International in 1998. These countries harbor the majority of the world's species and have high numbers of endemic species. They include Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ecuador, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, United States, and Venezuela. Brazil ranks first in biodiversity among these countries. The document provides details on the biodiversity found in each of these countries.
The document discusses neutral theory of molecular evolution, which holds that most genetic changes are due to neutral mutations that do not affect organismal fitness. It proposes that neutral mutations accumulate over time at a constant rate, allowing relative divergence times to be estimated. The theory aims to explain high genetic variation and presence of neutral substitutions between species. Several lines of evidence are presented, including comparative rates of evolution between functionally important and unimportant genes and gene regions.
Biodiversity hotspots are biogeographic regions with significant biodiversity that is threatened by humans. There are 25 hotspots identified worldwide based on having many endemic species and facing severe threats. Two of the hotspots are in India: the Western Ghats and Himalayan regions of northeast India and Myanmar. These hotspots are rich in endemic plant and animal species like reptiles, amphibians, insects and mammals. However, only a small percentage of the total land in biodiversity hotspots is currently protected.
An ecological niche describes how a species interacts with and fits into its environment, including obtaining resources like food and shelter, and reproducing. A niche encompasses all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. The fundamental niche is the full range of environmental conditions a species can tolerate without competition from other species. Species niches depend on factors like temperature, resources, and predators. Niches can overlap if species partition resources in non-competing ways, like dolphins and seals eating different types of fish.
The document summarizes various aspects of bio- and geo-diversity in India, including:
1) The Dal Lake in Kashmir, known for its crystal clear water and houseboats.
2) The Thar Desert in Rajasthan, consisting mainly of shifting and fixed sand dunes with some grasslands and shrublands.
3) Major crops grown in northern India like millets, wheat, pulses, maize, sugarcane and cotton.
4) The Sahyadri mountain range bordering western India and intercepting monsoon winds.
Direct And Indirect Drivers of BiodiversitySally Longford
A power point to practice working out whether the drivers that change biodiversity are direct or indirect, as described in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Seminar 3 biosphere reserve, wildlife sanctuaries, national parksgayathrideviaj
The document discusses various methods of wildlife conservation in India, including biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, and zoos. It notes that India has 18 biosphere reserves that protect larger areas than parks or sanctuaries. These reserves aim to protect flora, fauna, and human communities inhabiting the regions. There are also over 100 national parks and numerous wildlife sanctuaries across various states. The purpose of establishing these protected areas and zoos is to safeguard wild species and ecosystems from threats of habitat loss, overexploitation, and other human activities driving biodiversity decline.
1. The document discusses principles and strategies for conservation of natural resources and biological diversity. It outlines international efforts like CITES, WHC, CMS, and IWC that India is a signatory to help protect endangered species and habitats.
2. Key Indian initiatives discussed include projects like Project Tiger and Project Elephant, establishing wildlife crime control bureaus, and policies/acts like the Wildlife Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, and Biological Diversity Act.
3. The strategies aim to curb illegal wildlife trade, conduct conservation research, and protect national parks, sanctuaries, and biodiversity through collaborative international agreements and domestic legal and programmatic efforts.
The document summarizes different types of ecological succession that occur in ecosystems. It describes how succession leads to increases in ecosystem complexity over time through changes in species composition and interactions. Succession can be driven by external environmental changes (allogenic) or internal biological processes (autogenic). Primary succession occurs on new, undeveloped habitats while secondary succession follows disturbances to existing habitats. Intensive human activities like agriculture, pollution, and development can reduce ecosystem complexity by simplifying species interactions and food webs.
1) The document focuses on species extinction as described in an 8th standard Biology textbook. It discusses the major causes of species extinction such as deforestation, hunting, overexploitation, introduction of exotic species, and global warming.
2) Some examples of extinct species given are the Dodo bird which became extinct due to hunting and many Harlequin frog species in Central and South America that disappeared due to infectious diseases caused by climate change.
3) There have been 5 major extinction events in history including at the end of the Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and Cretaceous periods.
R AND K SELECTED SPECIES powerpoint presentationPriyam Nath
This document discusses r-selected and k-selected species strategies. It explains that life history strategies correlate with reproductive strategies and demographic variables like generation time and lifespan. The r- and k-selection paradigm focuses on density-dependent selection influencing life histories. r-selected species prioritize high birth rates while k-selected species emphasize high survival rates. The paradigm was later challenged and replaced by a focus on age-specific mortality, using age-structured models to incorporate factors like r- and k-selection.
This document discusses biodiversity, including its definition, distribution, and evolution. It defines biodiversity as the total variation of life at all levels of biological organization, from genes to ecosystems. Biodiversity is highest in tropical regions like rainforests and tends to decrease further from the equator. Several mass extinction events have occurred throughout Earth's history, notably including the Permian-Triassic event 251 million years ago. While biodiversity has generally increased over time, the current Holocene extinction caused by humans threatens to reduce it.
This document discusses island biogeography and provides examples of continental and oceanic islands. It describes how continental islands like Great Britain and Borneo have fauna more similar to nearby mainland areas due to past connections, while oceanic islands have fauna that arrived by air/water and is often endemic. It discusses species-area relationships and how larger islands support more species due to lower extinction rates. It summarizes Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson's equilibrium theory of island biogeography.
Illustrate the importance of selfish genesEssaysREasy
The document discusses Richard Dawkins' theory of selfish genes. Dawkins proposed that evolution occurs through natural selection acting at the gene level, not the organism level. Genes are "selfish" in that they compel organisms to act in ways that ensure the genes are replicated and passed on, such as through altruistic acts like animals sacrificing themselves for their offspring. The theory successfully explains phenomena like altruism that seemed contradictory to Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest. However, some critics argue Dawkins imbues genes with too much agency, while others misinterpreted his theory as justifying selfish human behaviors.
This document discusses the field of systematics and how it is used to determine the evolutionary history and phylogenetic relationships between organisms. It defines key terms like taxonomy, classification, phylogeny, homology, homoplasy, and monophyletic groups. Character data from organisms is used to construct phylogenetic trees that group organisms based on shared derived characteristics and common ancestry. Determining evolutionary relationships is important for understanding biodiversity and the interconnectedness of all life on Earth.
Conservation of Biodiversity is the need of the hour. Awareness is a must for biodiversity conservation.Various strategies of conservation are included in the presentation.
The document discusses invasive alien species (IAS) as a threat to biodiversity and the environment. It describes how some species have traits like rapid growth and reproduction that allow them to outcompete native species. IAS are often introduced through human activities like importing plants, releasing ballast water from ships, or the pet trade. They can negatively impact ecosystems, economies, agriculture, and human health. Effective control requires integrated approaches like mechanical removal, chemicals, biological controls, and habitat management. The conclusion states that IAS are a major threat globally and that their impacts must be managed.
The document discusses key concepts in ecosystems including abiotic and biotic factors, trophic levels, food chains and webs, and energy pyramids. It explains that abiotic factors are non-living elements that affect organisms, while biotic factors are living components. It outlines the trophic levels of primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers. Food chains represent the transfer of energy between trophic levels, while food webs show a more complex network of interactions. Energy and biomass pyramids illustrate how the amount of energy and matter decreases at higher trophic levels due to inefficiencies in energy transfer between levels.
An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms and their physical environment. Energy and matter are conserved as they cycle through ecosystems. Energy flows through an ecosystem from light to heat, while matter is recycled. Primary producers, like plants, capture energy through photosynthesis and provide the base of the food web. As organisms consume other organisms, energy is transferred between trophic levels, though most energy is lost at each level. Decomposition returns nutrients to the environment by decomposers breaking down dead organic matter.
Invasive species are non-native organisms that cause harm to the environment, economy, or human health. They spread rapidly and outcompete native species due to a lack of natural predators. Common modes of transmission include shipping, boats, wood/soil transport, release of pets/ornamentals, and climate change. Invasive species directly prey on, outcompete for resources, or introduce diseases to native wildlife. They can also indirectly impact ecosystems by altering habitats and food webs. Several invasive plant and animal species from around the world are provided as examples, including their origin, spread, and impacts.
The document discusses the 17 mega biodiverse countries identified by Conservation International in 1998. These countries harbor the majority of the world's species and have high numbers of endemic species. They include Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ecuador, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, United States, and Venezuela. Brazil ranks first in biodiversity among these countries. The document provides details on the biodiversity found in each of these countries.
The document discusses neutral theory of molecular evolution, which holds that most genetic changes are due to neutral mutations that do not affect organismal fitness. It proposes that neutral mutations accumulate over time at a constant rate, allowing relative divergence times to be estimated. The theory aims to explain high genetic variation and presence of neutral substitutions between species. Several lines of evidence are presented, including comparative rates of evolution between functionally important and unimportant genes and gene regions.
Biodiversity hotspots are biogeographic regions with significant biodiversity that is threatened by humans. There are 25 hotspots identified worldwide based on having many endemic species and facing severe threats. Two of the hotspots are in India: the Western Ghats and Himalayan regions of northeast India and Myanmar. These hotspots are rich in endemic plant and animal species like reptiles, amphibians, insects and mammals. However, only a small percentage of the total land in biodiversity hotspots is currently protected.
An ecological niche describes how a species interacts with and fits into its environment, including obtaining resources like food and shelter, and reproducing. A niche encompasses all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. The fundamental niche is the full range of environmental conditions a species can tolerate without competition from other species. Species niches depend on factors like temperature, resources, and predators. Niches can overlap if species partition resources in non-competing ways, like dolphins and seals eating different types of fish.
The document summarizes various aspects of bio- and geo-diversity in India, including:
1) The Dal Lake in Kashmir, known for its crystal clear water and houseboats.
2) The Thar Desert in Rajasthan, consisting mainly of shifting and fixed sand dunes with some grasslands and shrublands.
3) Major crops grown in northern India like millets, wheat, pulses, maize, sugarcane and cotton.
4) The Sahyadri mountain range bordering western India and intercepting monsoon winds.
Direct And Indirect Drivers of BiodiversitySally Longford
A power point to practice working out whether the drivers that change biodiversity are direct or indirect, as described in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Seminar 3 biosphere reserve, wildlife sanctuaries, national parksgayathrideviaj
The document discusses various methods of wildlife conservation in India, including biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, and zoos. It notes that India has 18 biosphere reserves that protect larger areas than parks or sanctuaries. These reserves aim to protect flora, fauna, and human communities inhabiting the regions. There are also over 100 national parks and numerous wildlife sanctuaries across various states. The purpose of establishing these protected areas and zoos is to safeguard wild species and ecosystems from threats of habitat loss, overexploitation, and other human activities driving biodiversity decline.
1. The document discusses principles and strategies for conservation of natural resources and biological diversity. It outlines international efforts like CITES, WHC, CMS, and IWC that India is a signatory to help protect endangered species and habitats.
2. Key Indian initiatives discussed include projects like Project Tiger and Project Elephant, establishing wildlife crime control bureaus, and policies/acts like the Wildlife Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, and Biological Diversity Act.
3. The strategies aim to curb illegal wildlife trade, conduct conservation research, and protect national parks, sanctuaries, and biodiversity through collaborative international agreements and domestic legal and programmatic efforts.
The document summarizes different types of ecological succession that occur in ecosystems. It describes how succession leads to increases in ecosystem complexity over time through changes in species composition and interactions. Succession can be driven by external environmental changes (allogenic) or internal biological processes (autogenic). Primary succession occurs on new, undeveloped habitats while secondary succession follows disturbances to existing habitats. Intensive human activities like agriculture, pollution, and development can reduce ecosystem complexity by simplifying species interactions and food webs.
1) The document focuses on species extinction as described in an 8th standard Biology textbook. It discusses the major causes of species extinction such as deforestation, hunting, overexploitation, introduction of exotic species, and global warming.
2) Some examples of extinct species given are the Dodo bird which became extinct due to hunting and many Harlequin frog species in Central and South America that disappeared due to infectious diseases caused by climate change.
3) There have been 5 major extinction events in history including at the end of the Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and Cretaceous periods.
R AND K SELECTED SPECIES powerpoint presentationPriyam Nath
This document discusses r-selected and k-selected species strategies. It explains that life history strategies correlate with reproductive strategies and demographic variables like generation time and lifespan. The r- and k-selection paradigm focuses on density-dependent selection influencing life histories. r-selected species prioritize high birth rates while k-selected species emphasize high survival rates. The paradigm was later challenged and replaced by a focus on age-specific mortality, using age-structured models to incorporate factors like r- and k-selection.
This document discusses biodiversity, including its definition, distribution, and evolution. It defines biodiversity as the total variation of life at all levels of biological organization, from genes to ecosystems. Biodiversity is highest in tropical regions like rainforests and tends to decrease further from the equator. Several mass extinction events have occurred throughout Earth's history, notably including the Permian-Triassic event 251 million years ago. While biodiversity has generally increased over time, the current Holocene extinction caused by humans threatens to reduce it.
This document discusses island biogeography and provides examples of continental and oceanic islands. It describes how continental islands like Great Britain and Borneo have fauna more similar to nearby mainland areas due to past connections, while oceanic islands have fauna that arrived by air/water and is often endemic. It discusses species-area relationships and how larger islands support more species due to lower extinction rates. It summarizes Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson's equilibrium theory of island biogeography.
Illustrate the importance of selfish genesEssaysREasy
The document discusses Richard Dawkins' theory of selfish genes. Dawkins proposed that evolution occurs through natural selection acting at the gene level, not the organism level. Genes are "selfish" in that they compel organisms to act in ways that ensure the genes are replicated and passed on, such as through altruistic acts like animals sacrificing themselves for their offspring. The theory successfully explains phenomena like altruism that seemed contradictory to Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest. However, some critics argue Dawkins imbues genes with too much agency, while others misinterpreted his theory as justifying selfish human behaviors.
This document discusses the field of systematics and how it is used to determine the evolutionary history and phylogenetic relationships between organisms. It defines key terms like taxonomy, classification, phylogeny, homology, homoplasy, and monophyletic groups. Character data from organisms is used to construct phylogenetic trees that group organisms based on shared derived characteristics and common ancestry. Determining evolutionary relationships is important for understanding biodiversity and the interconnectedness of all life on Earth.
Conservation of Biodiversity is the need of the hour. Awareness is a must for biodiversity conservation.Various strategies of conservation are included in the presentation.
The document discusses invasive alien species (IAS) as a threat to biodiversity and the environment. It describes how some species have traits like rapid growth and reproduction that allow them to outcompete native species. IAS are often introduced through human activities like importing plants, releasing ballast water from ships, or the pet trade. They can negatively impact ecosystems, economies, agriculture, and human health. Effective control requires integrated approaches like mechanical removal, chemicals, biological controls, and habitat management. The conclusion states that IAS are a major threat globally and that their impacts must be managed.
The document discusses key concepts in ecosystems including abiotic and biotic factors, trophic levels, food chains and webs, and energy pyramids. It explains that abiotic factors are non-living elements that affect organisms, while biotic factors are living components. It outlines the trophic levels of primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers. Food chains represent the transfer of energy between trophic levels, while food webs show a more complex network of interactions. Energy and biomass pyramids illustrate how the amount of energy and matter decreases at higher trophic levels due to inefficiencies in energy transfer between levels.
An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms and their physical environment. Energy and matter are conserved as they cycle through ecosystems. Energy flows through an ecosystem from light to heat, while matter is recycled. Primary producers, like plants, capture energy through photosynthesis and provide the base of the food web. As organisms consume other organisms, energy is transferred between trophic levels, though most energy is lost at each level. Decomposition returns nutrients to the environment by decomposers breaking down dead organic matter.
Primary producers like plants and algae act as the gateway for energy to enter ecosystems through photosynthesis. Productivity refers to the rate at which energy is added to organisms' bodies as biomass. Gross productivity is the overall energy capture rate, while net productivity is lower after accounting for energy lost to organism respiration and metabolism. Ecological pyramids visually represent energy flow and biomass accumulation across trophic levels, and typically narrow with each higher level due to inefficient energy transfer between levels.
The document provides information about ecosystems and ecology. It begins with definitions of ecosystems as self-regulating groups of interacting species and their environment, and ecology as the study of organism interactions and relationships. It then describes the key components and structure of ecosystems, including abiotic (physical and chemical) and biotic factors. Biotic components include producers (photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs), consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, detritivores), and decomposers. The document also discusses energy flow and trophic levels in food chains and food webs in ecosystems.
Energy flows through ecosystems via photosynthesis, where plants capture solar energy and produce organic compounds. Nearly all organisms rely directly or indirectly on this process. While energy is lost at each transfer between trophic levels, ecosystems have evolved to maximize energy flow. Chemical elements like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, and nitrogen cycle through biotic and abiotic components in ecosystems via processes like photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and nitrogen fixation, which are essential for life. Human activities like agriculture and industry can impact natural nutrient cycling.
This document provides information about ecosystems and natural resources. It defines ecosystems as interacting systems consisting of organisms and their environment. It discusses different types of ecosystems like terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It also explains key ecosystem functions like photosynthesis, energy flow, and material cycling. Additionally, it covers topics like food chains, ecological pyramids, renewable and non-renewable resources, and the importance of conserving natural resources for future generations.
environment , ecosystem and biodiversityNaveen Prabhu
This document provides an overview of environmental science and engineering concepts including the environment, ecosystems, and biodiversity. It defines key terms like environment, natural environment, man-made environment, abiotic components, biotic components, and energy components. It also describes the structure and functions of the atmosphere. Critical ecosystem concepts are explained like biome, producers, consumers, decomposers, energy flow, nutrient cycles, ecological succession, food chains, food webs, trophic levels, and ecological pyramids. Different types of ecosystems are classified as terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems.
The document discusses key concepts related to ecosystems and their functioning. It begins by defining an ecosystem as the functional unit where living organisms interact with each other and their physical environment. It then discusses various ecosystem components like species composition, stratification, productivity, decomposition, energy flow and nutrient cycling. The document further explains concepts like trophic levels, food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. It also covers ecological succession and biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus.
This document discusses ecosystems and the impacts of pollution. It begins by defining an ecosystem and describing its key components and interactions. It then explains how ecosystems function, including energy and nutrient flows. The three main types of ecosystems are described: freshwater, terrestrial, and ocean. Each has unique characteristics and food webs. When an ecosystem is polluted, the natural balance is disrupted, harming organisms. Pollution damages health, environments, and the planet. The remainder of the document discusses ecosystem components in more detail.
Want to know what an ecosystem is? Here’s your complete guide to learning all there is to know about ecosystems - its components, functions, and human impacts.
This document defines key terms related to organisms and their environment, including biosphere, ecology, habitat, population, and community. It also discusses the components of a community, including producers, consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores), and decomposers. Additionally, it covers topics like primary/secondary/tertiary consumers, predator-prey relationships, ecosystems, and how energy flows through trophic levels in a food chain and food web.
The document discusses key concepts in ecology including biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, individual species, abiotic and biotic factors, energy flow, nutrient cycles, and organism interactions. It explains that for an ecosystem to be stable, there must be a constant supply of energy, recycling of materials, and biodiversity. Energy and nutrients are transferred between producers, consumers, and decomposers through food chains, food webs, and nutrient cycles like carbon, water, and nitrogen. Organisms interact through relationships like competition, commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, and niche occupation.
The document provides information about ecosystems, including:
1) An ecosystem is a dynamic system consisting of organisms and their environment that influence each other. There are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
2) Ecosystem structure includes stratification, and functions include productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling.
3) Primary productivity is the production of biomass by plants, while secondary productivity is the production of new biomass by consumers.
-WHAT ARE ECOSYSTEMS?
-Parts of an Ecosystem
-Different types of organisms live in an ecosystem.
-Community
-Habitat
-Kinds Of Ecosystem
-Types of Ecosystems
-Components of Ecosystem
-Functions of an ecosystem
-PROCESSES OF ECOSYSTEMS
-Energy Flow Chart
-Types of Food Chains (Samples)
-Food Web
-Ecological Pyramids
-Types of Ecological Pyramids
-Industrial Ecology and Recycling Industry
-Recycling
-Environmental management system (EMS)
-ISO 14000
-Objectives of ISO 14000
-How are these standards developed?
-The 17 requirements of the ISO 14001
-Other standards in ISO 14001 series
An ecosystem consists of living and non-living components that interact and sustain each other. It includes producers, consumers, and decomposers that transfer energy and matter through food chains and food webs. Ecosystems can be natural like forests and aquatic systems, or artificial like crop lands and gardens. Ecosystems maintain a balance, but human activities are disrupting this balance by destroying forests and wildlife habitats. Conservation efforts like protected areas aim to restore ecological balance and preserve biodiversity.
This document provides an overview of ecosystems, including:
1. The definition of an ecosystem as the structural and functional unit of ecology encompassing the interaction between biotic and abiotic components.
2. The key characteristics, structure, and functions of ecosystems, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and trophic levels.
3. Details on primary productivity, decomposition, and the flow of energy through food chains and webs within ecosystems.
The document is intended for educational purposes and provides information compiled from various sources on the basic concepts of ecosystems.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles found in most animal and plant cells that contain hydrolytic enzymes. They function in intracellular digestion, breaking down molecules like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes work optimally at an acidic pH, which is maintained by a proton pump in the lysosomal membrane. Lysosomes digest excess or worn-out cellular components and can also degrade invading pathogens. They exhibit polymorphism with four main types - primary lysosomes, heterophagosomes, autophagosomes, and residual bodies.
The document discusses the three main types of filaments that make up the cytoskeleton - microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Microtubules are involved in cell division and structure other organelles. Microfilaments called actin filaments function in cell division, shape, and motility. Intermediate filaments provide strength and stability to cells and tissues. The cytoskeleton allows cells to maintain their shape and rearrange their internal structure during growth, division, and environmental changes.
This document discusses cellular aging and theories of aging. It covers several key points:
1) Cellular senescence and the Hayflick limit, where cells stop dividing after a certain number of divisions.
2) Theories of aging including the free radical theory, somatic mutation theory, and telomere loss theory.
3) Types of cell death including apoptosis, necrosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis. Programmed cell death limits inflammation while necrosis causes damage and inflammation.
- Gametogenesis is the production of gametes (sex cells) via meiosis from germ cells. This involves the formation of haploid egg and sperm cells from diploid precursor cells.
- Eggs undergo a process called oogenesis to form female gametes (ova/eggs). Sperm undergo spermatogenesis to form male gametes. Both involve mitosis, growth, and meiotic maturation.
- Mature eggs contain stored nutrients, proteins, mRNA and other materials necessary to support early embryonic development before the embryo can feed itself. Eggs accumulate these materials during oogenesis.
The document summarizes the development of a chick from an egg. It begins by describing the structure of the freshly laid hen's egg, including the large yolk, oval shape, membranes, and shell. It then discusses fertilization and cleavage, including discoidal meroblastic cleavage where cleavage is limited to the blastodisc atop the yolk. Next, it covers gastrulation processes like formation of the primitive streak and groove, migration of cells through the streak to form mesoderm and endoderm, and regression of the primitive streak.
Theories of preformation, pangenesis, epigenesis,Gauri Haval
The document summarizes several historical theories of embryological development:
1) Preformation theory proposed that embryos existed preformed and fully formed within the egg or sperm, simply needing to grow larger. This was later disproven.
2) Epigenesis theory, advocated by Wolff, stated that differentiation occurs after fertilization from an undifferentiated egg or sperm, and is the universally accepted view.
3) Pangenesis theory proposed by Darwin involved "gemmules" transmitting traits, but lacked scientific basis.
4) Axial gradient theory proposed physiological gradients along the axis determine development and regeneration, with Child expanding on this view quantitatively.
Cleavage is the process of rapid, synchronous cell divisions that occur after fertilization and before the mid-blastula transition. It involves the division of the zygote into increasingly smaller blastomeres through mitosis without cell growth. The planes and patterns of cleavage are determined by the distribution of yolk and cytoplasmic movements in the egg. This results in either complete or partial cleavage, forming a hollow ball of cells called a blastula. The transition to asynchronous cell cycles and zygotic transcription marks the mid-blastula stage.
Aquatic mammals have undergone several anatomical adaptations for living in aquatic ecosystems. They include streamlined bodies, fins or flippers for propulsion, insulating blubber, and circulatory systems that optimize oxygen retention and delivery. Sensory adaptations allow them to navigate, hunt, and communicate underwater using echolocation. Over time, mammals independently colonized aquatic habitats through evolutionary changes like the development of tail flukes, dorsal fins, baleen plates, and other structures suited for an aquatic lifestyle.
Birds have numerous anatomical and morphological adaptations for flight. Their bodies are lightweight yet strong, with hollow bones connected to an advanced respiratory system. Many bones are fused to provide rigidity. Their powerful flight muscles are anchored to a keeled sternum. Other adaptations include short tails for steering, highly mobile necks, and modified forelimbs that serve as wings providing lift through flapping powered by strong pectoral muscles. These numerous adaptations allow birds to harness the principles of aerodynamics and achieve sustained flight.
The document discusses the four extraembryonic membranes - the amnion, chorion, allantois, and yolk sac - that form in amniote embryos like reptiles, birds and mammals. These membranes allow the embryo to develop on land by mediating gas exchange, waste disposal, nutrition and preventing desiccation. Specifically, the amnion contains fluid to prevent drying out, the chorion facilitates gas exchange, the allantois stores waste, and the yolk sac provides nutrition from the yolk in early development. Together, these extraembryonic membranes enable amniote vertebrates to reproduce via shelled eggs laid on land.
This document describes different types of eggs based on their yolk content and distribution. It identifies four main categories of eggs: alecithal eggs which lack yolk; microlecithal, mesolecithal, and macrolecithal eggs which contain small, moderate, and large amounts of yolk respectively. It also describes four patterns of yolk distribution: homolecithal where yolk is uniform; telolecithal where yolk is concentrated on one side; centrolecithal where yolk is localized between two cytoplasm layers; and extremely telolecithal where nearly all the egg is yolk except a small disc of cytoplasm. Examples are provided for each category.
This document discusses embryonic axis determination in amphibians. It describes how:
1) Maternal factors like VegT and Vg1 localized to the vegetal pole specify germ layers.
2) The "grey crescent" region exposed at fertilization gives rise to dorsal lip cells that initiate gastrulation.
3) Transplantation experiments by Hans Spemann showed the dorsal lip acts as an "organizer", inducing surrounding tissues to form neural tube and paraxial mesoderm.
The plasma membrane encloses the cell and maintains differences between the cytosol and external environment. It has a bilayer structure of lipid and protein molecules. Early models like the Danielli and Davson model proposed a trilamellar structure of lipid bilayers separated by protein layers. The fluid mosaic model further described the membrane as a fluid bilayer with integral and peripheral proteins dispersed within. Transport across the membrane occurs through passive diffusion, facilitated transport, and active transport using carrier proteins and ion pumps. The membrane undergoes modifications like formation of microvilli, cilia, desmosomes and plasmodesmata to support cell functions.
Cell biology is the study of the structure and function of cells, the fundamental units of life. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex, and contain organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, and peroxisomes, each with specialized functions. The animal cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and contains a large nucleus housing the DNA, as well as various membrane-bound organelles that carry out specific functions necessary for cell survival and homeostasis.
Gastrulation is the process by which the three primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) are formed in frog embryos through coordinated cell movements. In Xenopus embryos, gastrulation begins with bottle-shaped cells invaginating at the equatorial marginal zone to form the blastopore slit. These cells become the dorsal blastopore lip. Additional mesodermal and endodermal precursor cells involute through the expanding blastopore, eventually forming a ring around the yolky endoderm and completing germ layer formation. Fate mapping studies track the origins and locations of precursor cells during gastrulation.
Fertilization involves the fusion of male and female gametes along with their cytoplasm and nuclei. There are two key aspects of fertilization - activation of the egg and amphimixis, or the mixing of maternal and paternal genes. Fertilization can be internal or external. In external fertilization, species-specific interactions between sperm and egg prevent cross-species fertilization. These include chemoattraction of sperm to eggs, binding of sperm to the egg coat through receptors, and the acrosome reaction which allows sperm to penetrate the coat. The plasma membranes of sperm and egg then fuse, mixing their contents.
The mesoderm generates organs between the ectoderm and endoderm. It is divided into four regions - chordamesoderm, paraxial mesoderm, intermediate mesoderm, and lateral plate mesoderm. The lateral plate mesoderm splits into somatic and splanchnic layers, forming the body cavity. The heart develops from cardiogenic mesoderm along the BMP signaling pathway induced by endoderm, while the notochord and neural tube provide inhibitory signals. By 29 hours of incubation, the heart primordia have fused to form a single tube.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
2. Ecosystem is the basic functional unit.
• It can be defined as any system composed of physical,
chemical and biological processes within a space time unit of
any magnitude.
•In other words the living organisms and their non living
environment are inseparably interrelated and interact upon
each other. Any unit that includes all the organisms that
function together in a given area interacting with the physical
environment so that flow of energy leads to clearly defined
biotic structures and cycling of material between living and
non living parts is an ecosystem.
3. The whole earth can be broadly divided into lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere. To these three ecological
components we can add biosphere.
Biosphere can be divided into different biomes.
Biomes are characterized by either landscape, climate or
vegetation. E.g.. Desert, Rain forest, Sea etc.
Biomes are subdivided into small units called zones.
Within each biome are various habitats.
Individuals form the population, populations form the
community, communities will lead to an ecosystem.
Ecosystems will lead to biomes.
4. The two major aspects of an ecosystem are
structure and function.
Structure of an ecosystem.
A) Abiotic components B) Biotic components.
Abiotic components are
a) Landscape, soil, climate, air, water, light .
b) Inorganic substances- carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorous, sulphur etc.
c) Organic substances- carbohydrates, proteins,
liquids, humus etc.
5. Biotic components
An ecosystem has two main biotic components
A) An Autotrophic component : able to fix light energy and
manufacture food from simple organic substances.
B) A heterotrophic component: which utilizes, rearranges,
decomposes the complex materials synthesized by
autotrophs.
These functional components are arranged in
overlapping layers . The greatest Autotrophic
metabolism occurring in the upper green belt where
light energy is available. The most intense
heterotrophic activity taking place in the lower brown
belt where organic matter accumulates in the
soil and sediments.
6. It is convenient to recognize four
constituents comprising ecosystem
1. Abiotic components- basic elements,
climate, landscape etc.
2. Producers- Autotrophic organisms mainly
green plants.
3. The large consumers – Heterotrophic
organisms mainly animals
4. Decomposers- micro consumers- chiefly
bacteria and fungi.
7. One of the universal feature of all ecosystems,
whether terrestrial or aquatic or human
engineered is the interaction of the
Autotrophic and heterotrophic components.
However, to run any system energy is
required.
8.
9. The number and diversity of organisms and rate
at which they live depends not only on
geographical position, evolutionary process,
magnitude of energy but on the flow of energy
through biological systems.
It is also dependent on the rate of circulation,
exchange of nitrogen, carbon, water and other
minerals between living and non living things.
Energy once used is converted into heat. Then it
no longer power life processes. It is lost from the
ecosystem.
All living organisms & machines are alike, they
are kept going by the continuous inflow of
energy from outside.
10. One way flow of energy is an universal
phenomenon.The laws of thermodynamics say
that energy is neither created nor destroyed and
energy may be transformed from one type to
another.
The second law of thermodynamics states that
no process involving an energy transformation
will occur unless there is a degradation of energy
from a concentrated form into dispersed form.
Some energy is always dispersed into
unavailable heat energy. This law is also called
entropy law
11. Organisms and ecosystems maintain their
highly organized, low entropy state by
transferring energy from high to low utility
states.
If the quantity or quality of energy flow
through a forest or a city is reduced, then the
forest or city literally begins to degrade.
To explain this--
12. Sun – 5000,000 k.cal/m2/year
Atmosphere –1000,000 k.cal/m2/year
Ecosystem– 500,000 k.cal/m2/year
Leaves ---2000 k.cal/m2/year
Rabbit --- 200 k.cal
Carnivore – 40 k. cal
13. It is important to note that useful work is
accomplished at each transfer.
We can not eat much of it or use it directly to run
our machines, all of incoming solar radiation is
vital to the operation of biosphere. It warms the
biosphere of life tolerable levels.
It powers weather systems, drives hydrological
cycles.
A little bit decrease in heat brings on an ice age
while small increase brings tropical era with a
melting of all polar ice raising the sea level.
14.
15. The transfer of food energy from the source
in plants through a series of organisms with
repeated stages of eating and being eaten is
known as Food chain.
Green plants occupy the first trophic level-
Producers.
Plant eaters – Herbivores – second level-
Primary consumer level.
Carnivores that eat herbivores- Third level-
Secondary consumers.
Fourth Level – Tertiary consumers.
16. These trophic levels are not species wise. A given
species population may occupy one or more trophic
levels.
If an average 1500k cal of light energy absorbed by
green plants/m2/day
Net plant production 15 k cal.
1.5 k cal – Primary consumer.
0.3 k.cal– Secondary consumer.
17. Meat is generally higher nutritional quality. However,
energy is lost in each transfer. The amount of food
remaining after 2-3 successive transfer is very small. Only
few organisms could be supported.
The shorter the food chain or nearer the organism to the
beginning of food chain, greater is the available food
energy.
100 acres of corn –10 times more people can be
supported if they are primary consumers. If corn –
animals – eat meat i.e. secondary consumers – the
population must be low.
Tiger is at the top of food chain- the number is less
than primary consumers.
18. Sun - solar energy
Primary consumers
Producers
dead remains Primary carnivore
Secondary carnivore
raw material
Decomposers
19. Food chains
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked
together.
Sheep may eat grass and in turn may be eaten
by a man.
Grains Mouse Owl, hawk, fox
Algae zooplankton crustacean
fish bird, frog snake.
There are many examples of food chains.
All these food chains involve several links.
20. Food chains are not isolated from each other.
A mouse in the field may eat several types of
seeds and be preyed upon by several
carnivores. Each carnivore may consume
more than one type of prey.
The food chains interlock with one another.
This interconnecting network of species is
called as food web.
21.
22. In the successive steps of grazing food chain,
the number and mass of the organisms in
each step is limited by the amount of energy
available.
Since some energy is lost as heat, in each
transformation the steps become
progressively smaller near the top.
This relationship is sometimes called
Ecological pyramid. It represents the trophic
structure and function of the ecosystem.
23. In many ecological pyramids, the producer
forms the base and the successive trophic
levels make up the apex.
fish
Carnivore
Carnivore worms
herbivore zooplankton
producers phytoplankton
24.
25. Energy based classification of ecosystems.
1. Unsubsidized natural, solar powered ecosystems:
a) Depend on direct rays of sun.
b) They are unsubsidized in the sense that there is little
auxiliary source of energy to supplement solar energy.
examples- open seas, large grasslands, upland forests,
large deep lakes.
c) These are subjected to limitations – shortage of
nutrients or water. They are low productive
d) Organisms that populate such systems have evolved
remarkable adaptations for living and efficiently using
energy source.
26. 2. Naturally subsidized solar powered
ecosystem
Example : Coastal estuary, Rain forest.
Naturally subsidized by the energy of tides, waves &
currents. Back and forth flow of water does the work of
recycling mineral nutrients and transporting food and
wastes.
The organisms in an estuary concentrate their efforts on
more efficient conversion of sun energy on organic
matter. Organisms are adapted to use tidal power.
Estuaries tend to be more fertile. Productivity is more.
27. 3. Man subsidized solar powered ecosystem:
Example- Agriculture & aquaculture
Man has learned to modify and subsidize nature for his
benefit. He has become increasingly skillful in not only
raising productivity but more especially in channeling
that productivity into food and fiber.
High yields of food are maintained by large inputs of fuel
involved in cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, genetic
selection and pest control.
Thus tractor fuel as well as animal /human labor is just as
much as energy input as sunlight.
The processing and transportation of food also needs
energy inputs. Thus food we eat also has part of oil in it.
28. Man subsidized urban industrial ecosystem
Here sun energy is replaced by highly concentrated
potential energy of fuel. Solar energy is unused in the
cities. However, solar energy becomes a costly nuisance
by heating up the concrete, contributing to the
generation of fog.
Food which is the product of solar energy is considered
as an externality. The food is imported from outside.
Cities are densely populated. An energy requirement is
enormous. Waste is assimilated, not recycled. If recycles
only in small portions. Water is also not recycled.
29. The cities create pressure on surrounding areas. These
areas are low powered sun systems.
The richer the city in its power use , greater the area of
life support that is required.
It is no accident that all of the world’s great industrial
cities are located on coasts, large estuaries, rivers or
fertile deltas. In these areas life support capacity of the
natural environment is very high or extensive.
The food and fiber comes from the surrounding area, the
waste is assimilated in the cities. Recycling will not take
place. Creating more and more pressure in terms of
mineral loss, in surrounding areas.
30. Ecosystems are of two types
A) Aquatic B) Terrestrial
Terrestrial Ecosystems:
Only about a quarter of the earth’s surface is dry land. Yet
the complexity and variegation of terrestrial ecosystems
are much greater than those of aquatic ecosystems.
Variety of climates, diversity of lithosphere and
heterogeneity of terrestrial biotic communities all
conspire to give variety of themes.
Terrestrial ecosystem is a three phase system, where
characteristic of habitat are a function of atmosphere,
climate, soil and biotic community itself.
31. The earth surface- the continental land mass have been
classified into following regions :
1. Biogeographic realms 2. Biomes.
Biogeographic realms or regions:
Describes distribution of plants and animals over the earth.
There are six major biogeographical regions namely
Palaeartic realm, Nearctic realm, Neotropical realm,
Ethiopian realm, Oriental and Australian realm etc.
Each is characterized by presence of unique organisms.
Biomes : Within these realms and established by a complex
interaction of climate, other physical factors and biotic
factors are large community units are called biomes.
32.
33. Tundra biome: Marshy plain
Fragile ecosystem
Characterized by absence of trees. Presence of dwarf
plants
Upper ground surface is wet. It remains frozen which
thaw during brief summer. Warmest months averaging
below 10 C.
The thin carpet of Tundra vegetation includes grasses
and sedges. Low flowering herbs, lichens. The lichen
here is called as reindeer moss.
Animals : Caribou and Reindeer, arctic hare, fox, polar
bear wolves, snowy owls etc.
34. High altitude or the Alpine Biome.
The region of mountain above timber line contains a distinct
flora and fauna and referred as alpine zone. E.g. in
Himalayas.
A low air density, low oxygen and carbon dioxide, high
ozone, greater penetration of light, cold snow cover, high
wind velocity.
There are meadow zone and shrub zone.
Animal life: Many invertebrates are predatory and occur in
lakes and streams. Fishes and amphibians are totally lacking.
A large number of insects and arachnids remain best
adapted. Among vertebrates- snow partridge, snow leopard,
yak, Tibetan sheep, Persian wild goat. etc
35. Forest Biomes:
This biomes include a complex assemblage of different kinds
of biotic communities. Optimum conditions of temperature
and moisture responsible for growth of trees.
There are different types of forests. The classification of
Indian forest was first done by H.G. Champion. The
classification is based on single important factor rain fall.
Annual rain fall (inches) Forest type.
80 and more Evergreen or rain forest
80 to 40 Moist deciduous
40 to 20 Dry deciduous
20 and less Scrub, thorn, dry
deciduous
36. Along with this there are intermediate
conditions. Such as semi evergreen.
There are special forests such as Mangrove
forest near coastal region. This is evergreen type
of forest. However, it is not associated with
rainfall but grow where water is in plenty.
37.
38.
39. Cold regions with high rain fall.
Strongly seasonal climates with long winters and
small summers.
The region is commonly called Taiga.
Characterized by evergreen plant species such as
spruce, pine, fir.
The animals inhabiting these areas are snow
shoe hare, lynx, wolf, bears, red fox, porcupines,
squirrels, amphibians like Hyla and Rana.
40.
41. Characterized by moderate climate and broad
leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves in
fall. The trees are bare over winter and grow new
foliage during spring.
Present in North America, Europe, Eastern Asia,
part of Australia and Japan.
Cold winter. Annual rainfall- 75-100 cm.
Temperature-10-20 C. soil is fairly deep.
Trees are tall. Maple, beech, oak, basswood,
chestnut, willow.
The understory of shrubs and herbs is well
developed.
42. Animals : Deer, bears, foxes, squirrels,
bobcats, wild turkey, wood peckers.
Common invertebrates are earthworms,
millipedes, centipedes, snails, insects.
Amphibians such as newts, toads,
salamanders, frogs and reptiles such as
snakes, turtles, lizards etc.
Mammals such as opossum, pigs, mountain
lion, raccoon etc.
The animals and plants show seasonality.
43.
44. Occur near equator in central and south
America, Central and western Africa,
Southeast Asia (Parts of India & Malaysia).
Among the most diverse communities on
earth.
Temperature and humidity high and
constant.
Annual rainfall exceeds 200-225 cm.
Generally evenly distributed throughout the
year.
45. The flora is highly diversified. A square mile may
contain 300 different species of trees.
Extreme dense vegetation of tropical rain forests
remains vertically stratified with tall trees often
covered with vines, creepers, lianas, orchids.
The trees form large canopy. The understory of
trees with shrubs, herbs like palms, ferns. Nearly
all plants are evergreen. The leaves are
moderate size, leathery and dark green.
46. Invertebrate density and abundance very high.
Worms, snails, millipedes, centipedes, scorpions,
spiders, insects, planarians, leeches etc.
Common vertebrates – arboreal amphibians,
aquatic reptiles, chameleons, geckoes, snakes,
many species of birds and a variety of mammals.
Mammals such as leopards, jungle cats, ant-eaters,
giant flying squirrels, monkeys and sloth bear. In
the foot hills of forest zone we have tiger, elephant,
samber deer, gaur, chital, swamp deer etc.
47.
48. Occur in the region whose total rainfall is high but
segregated into pronounced wet and dry periods.
Found in Southeast Asia, Central and south
America, Northern Australia, western Africa and
tropical islands of the pacific as well as India.
These forests are commonly known as Monsoon
forests.
Trees may reach heights over 40 m.but commonly
are 20-30m.
Stratification is relatively simple with single
understory tree layer.
49. Canopy is deciduous and understory is
evergreen.
Teak is often a major tree. Bamboo is also an
important climax shrub.
50.
51. Savannas are tropical grasslands with scattered
drought resistant trees.
The height of the trees do not exceed above 10
m. and do not form canopy.
Savanna is intermediate between forest and
grassland.
Found in Eastern Africa, Australia, south
America.
Eastern Africa supports the richest diversity of
grazing mammals.
52. The trees of savanna are resistant to
desiccation- may be deciduous or evergreen.
Leaves are hard, drought resistant.
Grasses are most conspicuous and may reach
height 1-2 m.
Animals found are giraffes, elephants, buffalo,
lions.
Insect fauna is very rich.-grasshoppers and
termites are predominant.
53.
54. Rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year not enough
to support a forest yet more than desert.
Include tall grass prairies, short grass prairies.
Arid grasslands of North America as well as
steppes of Eurasia, Pampas of South America.
These are open land communities with limited
moisture. There is movement of air. Provide
natural Pasture for grazing animals.
55. Dominant plant – grass- buffalo grass.
Soil- rich, fertile, accumulation of organic
matter.
Animals – Herbivore- Bison, wild horse,
antelopes, zebra.
Carnivores- fox, owl, rattle snake, badgers
Most herbivores aggregate into herds or
colonies which provides protection.
Characteristic birds are larks, rodent hawks.
Insects- Termites, locusts, bees,wasps etc.
56. Similar to this biome we get, scrub forests.
The temperature is high. Rain fall scanty. Less
moisture.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62. Formed in driest environments.
Temperatures may range from very hot as in hot
deserts to very cold in cold deserts.
Hot deserts- Sahara-Arabia-Gobi, Rajasthan.
Cold deserts- Ladakh, Tibet, Bolivia arctic.
Hot desert : Rain fall less than 10mm.
Soil and air temperatures extremely high by day
and drop abruptly by night, low humidity.
63. Desert plants-shrubs adapted to drought
conditions through reduced leaf size,
dropping of leaves. Roots are well developed.
Ephemerals are common. Cacti, water storing
succulents, euphorbia are common.
Animals: reptiles, insects, burrowing rodents,
mules, camels. These animals show great
adaptation.
64. Indian desert shows 4 habitats : Aquatic,
sandy, rocky, riparian.
In the perennial lakes- Amphibians- toads,
frogs. Fishes.
Reptiles- crocodiles, lizard, snakes.
Birds- Partridge, Quail, Indian Bustards.
In winter numerous aquatic birds.
Mammals- Bats, squirrel, porcupine, wolf,
jackals, fox, mongoose and cats.
65. What Landscape architect
should do
To create places that improve rather than
degrade over time
What is needed?
Complete inventory of the site
History of the location, land use pattern.
66. Reference ecosystem if available
Data of the site with reference to flora, fauna,
geography, geology, climate, rainfall,
different ecosystems such as grassland,
forest, rocks, soil, seral stages, special
habitats, stream. Kind of landscape, contours
etc.
67. If all mankind were to disappear,
The world would regenerate back to the rich state of
equilibrium
That existed ten thousand years ago.
If insects were to vanish,
The environment would collapse into chaos.
Edward O
Wilson