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ECOLOGY 
The study of living organisms in the 
natural environment 
How they interact with one another 
How the interact with their nonliving 
environment 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Evolution of Definitions of 
Ecology 
 Ecology = from the Greek root OIKOS, “at home”, and 
LOGY, “the study of” 
 Haeckle (1870): “By ecology we mean the body of 
knowledge concerning the economy of Nature - 
theinvestigation of the total relations of the animal to its 
inorganic and organic environment.” 
 Burdon-Sanderson (1890s): Elevated Ecology to one 
of the three natural divisions of Biology: Physiology 
Morphology -Ecology 
 Elton (1927): “Scientific natural history” 
 Andrewartha (1961): “The scientific study of the 
distribution and abundance of organisms” 
 Odum (1963): “The structure and function of Nature”
• Ecology (from the Greek oikos 
meaning "house" or "dwelling", and 
logos meaning "discourse") 
• It is the study of the interactions of 
organisms with each other and their 
environment.
• Applied Ecology: Using ecological 
principles to maintain conditions necessary 
for the continuation of present day life on 
earth. 
• Industrial Ecology: The design of the 
industrial infrastructure such that it consists of 
a series of interlocking "technological 
ecosystems" interfacing with global natural 
ecosystems. Industrial ecology takes the 
pattern and processes of natural ecosystems 
as a design for sustainability. It represents a 
shift in paradigm from conquering nature to
• Ecological Engineering: the focus of 
Ecological Engineering is on the 
manipulation of natural ecosystems by 
humans for our purposes, using small 
amounts of supplemental energy to 
control systems in which the main energy 
drives are still coming from non-human 
sources. 
• It is the design of new ecosystems for 
human purposes, using the self-organizing 
principles of natural 
ecosystems. 
• "the design of human society with its
• Ecological Economics: Integrating ecology 
and economics in such a way that economic 
and environmental policies are reinforcing 
rather than mutually destructive. 
• Urban ecology: For ecologists, urban 
ecology is the study of ecology in urban 
areas, specifically the relationships, 
interactions, types and numbers of species 
found in urban habitats. Also, the design of 
sustainable cities, urban design programs 
that incorporate political, infrastructure and 
economic considerations.
Conservation Biology: The application of 
diverse fields and disciplines to the 
conservation of biological diversity. 
Restoration Biology: Application of 
ecosystem ecology to the restoration of 
deteriorated landscapes in an attempt to 
bring it back to its original state as much as 
possible. Example, prarie grass.
Landscape Ecology: is concerned with 
spatial patterns in the landscape and how 
they develop, with an emphasis on the role 
of disturbance, including human impacts” 
(Smith and Smith). It is a relatively new 
branch of ecology, that employs Global 
Information Systems. The goal is to predict 
the responses of different organisms to 
changes in landscape, to ultimately facilitate 
ecosystem management.
Ecological Organization: 
1. Population: all the members of a species 
inhabiting a given location 
2. Community: all the interacting 
populations in a given area 
3. Ecosystem: the living community and 
the physical environment functioning 
together as an independent and 
relatively stable system
4. Biosphere: that portion of the earth 
where life exists 
a. The biosphere is composed of 
numerous complex ecosystems. 
b. An ecosystem involves interactions 
between abiotic (physical) and biotic 
(living) factors. The members of the 
community in the ecosystem and 
environment must interact to maintain 
a balance.
An ecosystem is self-sustaining if the 
following requirements are met: 
1. A constant source of energy and a 
living system capable of incorporating 
this energy into organic molecules. 
2. A cycling of materials between 
organisms and their environment.
 In all 
environments, 
organisms with 
similar needs may 
compete with 
each other for 
resources, 
including food, 
space, water, air, 
and shelter.
Abiotic factors: 
 those physical and chemical factors which 
affect the ability of organisms to survive 
and reproduce
Some Abiotic Factors: 
1. intensity of light 
2. range of temperatures 
3. amount of moisture 
4. type of substratum (soil or rock type) 
5. availability of inorganic substances such 
as minerals 
6. supply of gases such as oxygen, carbon 
dioxide, and nitrogen 
7. pH
** Each of the prior listed abiotic factors varies 
in the environment and, as such, may act as 
a limiting factor, determining the types of 
organisms that exist in that environment.
Some examples: 
1. A low annual temperature common to the 
northern latitudes determines in part the 
species of plants which can exist in that 
area. 
2. The amount of oxygen dissolved in a 
body of water will help determine what 
species of fish live there. 
3. The dry environment of desert regions 
limits the organisms that can live there.
Ecosystem 
Community + Abiotic environment, 
interacting 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Community 
All the populations of the different species living and 
inter-acting in the same ecosystem 
7-spotted lady 
bird 
(Adephagia 
septempunctata) 
Bean aphids 
(Aphis fabae) 
Red ant 
(Myrmica rubra) 
and 
Broom plant 
(Cytisus 
scoparius) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Species 
A group of organisms that can breed to 
produce fully fertile offspring 
Great White © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus
Species 
 a group of living organisms consisting of 
similar individuals capable of exchanging 
genes or interbreeding. The species is the 
principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking 
below a genus and denoted by a Latin 
binomial, e.g., Homo sapiens.
Ecotype 
 sometimes called ecospecies 
 describes a genetically distinct geographic 
variety, population or race within a 
species, which is adapted to specific 
environmental conditions. 
 Typically, ecotypes exhibit phenotypic 
stemming from environmental 
heterogeneity 
 capable of interbreeding with other 
geographically adjacent ecotypes without 
loss of fertility or vigor
Ecotype: earthworms 
 Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes. 
 Compost earthworm prefer warm and moist 
environments with a ready supply of fresh compost 
material.
Ecotype: earthworms 
 Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes. 
 Epigeic earthworms live on the surface of the soil 
in leaf litter and tend not to make burrows but live 
in and feed on the leaf litter.
Ecotype: earthworms 
 Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes. 
 Endogeic earthworms live in and feed on the soil, 
making horizontal burrows through the soil to move 
around and to feed and they will reuse these 
burrows to a certain extent.
Ecotype: earthworms 
 Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes. 
 Anecic earthworms make permanent vertical 
burrows in soil, feeding on leaves on the soil 
surface that they drag into their burrows
Population 
A group of organism of 
the same species which 
live in the same habitat 
at the same time where 
they can freely 
interbreed 
The black-veined white butterfly 
(Aporia crataegi) mating 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Biodiversity 
The total number of 
different species in an 
ecosystem and their 
relative abundance 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS Worcester City Museums
Habitat 
The characteristics of the type of environment 
where an organism normally lives. 
(e.g. a stoney stream, a deciduous temperate 
woodland, Bavarian beer mats) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Energy and organisms 
Autotrophs 
Organisms which can synthesise their own 
complex, energy rich, organic molecules from 
simple inorganic molecules (e.g. green plants 
synthesis sugars from CO2 and H2O) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Heterotrophs 
Organisms who must obtain complex, 
energy rich, organic compounds form the 
bodies of other organisms (dead or alive) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Detritivores 
Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead 
organic matter. (e.g. earthworms, 
woodlice, millipedes) 
Earth worm 
(Lumbricus terrestris) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Saprotrophs 
Heterotrophic organisms who secrete digestive 
enzymes onto dead organism matter and absorb 
the digested material. (e.g. fungi, bacteria) 
Chanterelle 
(Cantherellus 
cibarius) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
Feeding relationships 
 Predators & prey 
 Herbivory 
 Parasite & host 
 Mutualism 
 Competition 
Large blue 
butterfly 
(Maculinea arion) 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
The place of an organism in its 
environment 
Niche 
An organism’s habitat + role + tolerance 
limits to all limiting factors 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
THE COMPETITIVE 
EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 
G.F. Gause (1934) 
If two species, with the same niche, coexist 
in the same ecosystem, then one will be 
excluded from the community due to 
intense competition 
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL STUDY 
ORGANISMAL ECOLOGY - the study of individual organisms' 
behavior, physiology, morphology, etc. in response to 
environmental challenges. 
POPULATION ECOLOGY - the study of factors that affect and 
change the size and genetic composition of populations of 
organisms. 
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY - the study of how community structure 
and organization are changed by interactions among living 
organisms 
ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY - the study of entire ecosystems, 
including the responses and changes in the community in 
response to the abiotic components of the ecosystem. This field is 
concerned with such large-scale topics as energy and nutrient 
cycling.
LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY – study of the exchanges of energy, 
materials, organisms and other products of between ecosystems. 
GLOBAL ECOLOGY - the study of the effects of regional change 
in energy and matter exchange on the function and distribution of 
organisms across the biosphere.

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Ecology nov.17

  • 1. ECOLOGY The study of living organisms in the natural environment How they interact with one another How the interact with their nonliving environment © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 2. Evolution of Definitions of Ecology  Ecology = from the Greek root OIKOS, “at home”, and LOGY, “the study of”  Haeckle (1870): “By ecology we mean the body of knowledge concerning the economy of Nature - theinvestigation of the total relations of the animal to its inorganic and organic environment.”  Burdon-Sanderson (1890s): Elevated Ecology to one of the three natural divisions of Biology: Physiology Morphology -Ecology  Elton (1927): “Scientific natural history”  Andrewartha (1961): “The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms”  Odum (1963): “The structure and function of Nature”
  • 3. • Ecology (from the Greek oikos meaning "house" or "dwelling", and logos meaning "discourse") • It is the study of the interactions of organisms with each other and their environment.
  • 4. • Applied Ecology: Using ecological principles to maintain conditions necessary for the continuation of present day life on earth. • Industrial Ecology: The design of the industrial infrastructure such that it consists of a series of interlocking "technological ecosystems" interfacing with global natural ecosystems. Industrial ecology takes the pattern and processes of natural ecosystems as a design for sustainability. It represents a shift in paradigm from conquering nature to
  • 5. • Ecological Engineering: the focus of Ecological Engineering is on the manipulation of natural ecosystems by humans for our purposes, using small amounts of supplemental energy to control systems in which the main energy drives are still coming from non-human sources. • It is the design of new ecosystems for human purposes, using the self-organizing principles of natural ecosystems. • "the design of human society with its
  • 6. • Ecological Economics: Integrating ecology and economics in such a way that economic and environmental policies are reinforcing rather than mutually destructive. • Urban ecology: For ecologists, urban ecology is the study of ecology in urban areas, specifically the relationships, interactions, types and numbers of species found in urban habitats. Also, the design of sustainable cities, urban design programs that incorporate political, infrastructure and economic considerations.
  • 7. Conservation Biology: The application of diverse fields and disciplines to the conservation of biological diversity. Restoration Biology: Application of ecosystem ecology to the restoration of deteriorated landscapes in an attempt to bring it back to its original state as much as possible. Example, prarie grass.
  • 8. Landscape Ecology: is concerned with spatial patterns in the landscape and how they develop, with an emphasis on the role of disturbance, including human impacts” (Smith and Smith). It is a relatively new branch of ecology, that employs Global Information Systems. The goal is to predict the responses of different organisms to changes in landscape, to ultimately facilitate ecosystem management.
  • 9. Ecological Organization: 1. Population: all the members of a species inhabiting a given location 2. Community: all the interacting populations in a given area 3. Ecosystem: the living community and the physical environment functioning together as an independent and relatively stable system
  • 10. 4. Biosphere: that portion of the earth where life exists a. The biosphere is composed of numerous complex ecosystems. b. An ecosystem involves interactions between abiotic (physical) and biotic (living) factors. The members of the community in the ecosystem and environment must interact to maintain a balance.
  • 11.
  • 12. An ecosystem is self-sustaining if the following requirements are met: 1. A constant source of energy and a living system capable of incorporating this energy into organic molecules. 2. A cycling of materials between organisms and their environment.
  • 13.  In all environments, organisms with similar needs may compete with each other for resources, including food, space, water, air, and shelter.
  • 14. Abiotic factors:  those physical and chemical factors which affect the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce
  • 15. Some Abiotic Factors: 1. intensity of light 2. range of temperatures 3. amount of moisture 4. type of substratum (soil or rock type) 5. availability of inorganic substances such as minerals 6. supply of gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen 7. pH
  • 16. ** Each of the prior listed abiotic factors varies in the environment and, as such, may act as a limiting factor, determining the types of organisms that exist in that environment.
  • 17. Some examples: 1. A low annual temperature common to the northern latitudes determines in part the species of plants which can exist in that area. 2. The amount of oxygen dissolved in a body of water will help determine what species of fish live there. 3. The dry environment of desert regions limits the organisms that can live there.
  • 18. Ecosystem Community + Abiotic environment, interacting © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 19. Community All the populations of the different species living and inter-acting in the same ecosystem 7-spotted lady bird (Adephagia septempunctata) Bean aphids (Aphis fabae) Red ant (Myrmica rubra) and Broom plant (Cytisus scoparius) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 20. Species A group of organisms that can breed to produce fully fertile offspring Great White © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus
  • 21. Species  a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g., Homo sapiens.
  • 22. Ecotype  sometimes called ecospecies  describes a genetically distinct geographic variety, population or race within a species, which is adapted to specific environmental conditions.  Typically, ecotypes exhibit phenotypic stemming from environmental heterogeneity  capable of interbreeding with other geographically adjacent ecotypes without loss of fertility or vigor
  • 23. Ecotype: earthworms  Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes.  Compost earthworm prefer warm and moist environments with a ready supply of fresh compost material.
  • 24. Ecotype: earthworms  Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes.  Epigeic earthworms live on the surface of the soil in leaf litter and tend not to make burrows but live in and feed on the leaf litter.
  • 25. Ecotype: earthworms  Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes.  Endogeic earthworms live in and feed on the soil, making horizontal burrows through the soil to move around and to feed and they will reuse these burrows to a certain extent.
  • 26. Ecotype: earthworms  Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes.  Anecic earthworms make permanent vertical burrows in soil, feeding on leaves on the soil surface that they drag into their burrows
  • 27.
  • 28. Population A group of organism of the same species which live in the same habitat at the same time where they can freely interbreed The black-veined white butterfly (Aporia crataegi) mating © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 29. Biodiversity The total number of different species in an ecosystem and their relative abundance © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS Worcester City Museums
  • 30. Habitat The characteristics of the type of environment where an organism normally lives. (e.g. a stoney stream, a deciduous temperate woodland, Bavarian beer mats) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 31. Energy and organisms Autotrophs Organisms which can synthesise their own complex, energy rich, organic molecules from simple inorganic molecules (e.g. green plants synthesis sugars from CO2 and H2O) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 32. Heterotrophs Organisms who must obtain complex, energy rich, organic compounds form the bodies of other organisms (dead or alive) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 33. Detritivores Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead organic matter. (e.g. earthworms, woodlice, millipedes) Earth worm (Lumbricus terrestris) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 34. Saprotrophs Heterotrophic organisms who secrete digestive enzymes onto dead organism matter and absorb the digested material. (e.g. fungi, bacteria) Chanterelle (Cantherellus cibarius) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 35. Feeding relationships  Predators & prey  Herbivory  Parasite & host  Mutualism  Competition Large blue butterfly (Maculinea arion) © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 36. The place of an organism in its environment Niche An organism’s habitat + role + tolerance limits to all limiting factors © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 37. THE COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE G.F. Gause (1934) If two species, with the same niche, coexist in the same ecosystem, then one will be excluded from the community due to intense competition © 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
  • 38. LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL STUDY ORGANISMAL ECOLOGY - the study of individual organisms' behavior, physiology, morphology, etc. in response to environmental challenges. POPULATION ECOLOGY - the study of factors that affect and change the size and genetic composition of populations of organisms. COMMUNITY ECOLOGY - the study of how community structure and organization are changed by interactions among living organisms ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY - the study of entire ecosystems, including the responses and changes in the community in response to the abiotic components of the ecosystem. This field is concerned with such large-scale topics as energy and nutrient cycling.
  • 39. LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY – study of the exchanges of energy, materials, organisms and other products of between ecosystems. GLOBAL ECOLOGY - the study of the effects of regional change in energy and matter exchange on the function and distribution of organisms across the biosphere.