This document describes basic 2D technical drawing constructions and representations. It covers topics such as types of lines used in drawings, geometric constructions for shapes like triangles, circles, and ellipses, representing curved surfaces and features like fillets and holes, and drawing conventions for projections, sections, and details. The overall objectives are to identify the geometry that makes up basic 2D drawings and use manual drafting or CAD skills to create technical figures.
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CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
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About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
4. Line standards
Name Convention Description Example
Center
lines
Thin lines made up of long
and short dashes
alternately spaced and
consistent in length
Symmetry about an axis
and location of centers
Visible
lines
Heavy unbroken lines
Indicate visible edge of an
object
Hidden
lines
Medium lines with short
evenly spaced dashes
Indicate concealed edges
5. Line standards
Name Convention Description Example
Extension
lines
Thin unbroken lines
Indicate extent of
dimensions
Dimension
lines
Thin lines terminated with
arrow heads at each end
Indicate distance measured
Leader Thin lines terminated with
arrow head or dot at one
end
Indicate a part, dimension
or other reference
6. Line standards
Name Convention Description Example
Long break
lines
Thin solid ruled lines with
freehand zig-zags
Reduce size of drawing
required to delineate object
and reduce detail
Short break
lines
Thick, solid free hand lines
Indicate a short break
Phantom
lines
Medium series of one long
dash and two short dashes
Indicate alternate position
of part, repeated detail or
datum plane
7. Line standards
Name Convention Description Example
Cutting
plane lines
Designate where an
imaginary cutting took
place
Indicate direction of sight
when a partial view is used
Section
lines
Indicate the surface in the
section view have been cut
along the cutting plane line
12. OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the geometry that makes up basic 2D drawings.
2. Use board drafting or 2D CAD skills to create technical figures.
3. Describe the advantages of CAD contrasted with drawing with
manual instruments
14. BISECTING A LINE OR CIRCULAR ARC
Triangle and T-Square System
Compass system
15. BISECTING A LINE WITH TRIANGLE AND T SQUARE
From endpoints A and B, draw construction lines at 30°, 45°, or 60° with the given line.
Then, through their intersection, C, draw a line perpendicular to the given line to locate
the center D…
16. Triangles
Inclined lines can be drawn at standard angles with the 45° triangle and the
30° x 60° triangle. The triangles are transparent so that you can see the lines
of the drawing through them. A useful combination of triangles is the 30° x 60°
triangle with a long side of 10" and a 45° triangle with each side 8" long.
17. Any Angle in 15° Increments
With only a 30° x 60°
triangle and a 45°
triangle, you can draw
any angle in 15°
increments
The bottom
of the triangle in
each case is resting
on the blade of the
T-square. Twenty-four 15°
sectors are possible with just
these two triangles used
singly or in combination.
18. Protractors
For measuring or setting off angles other than those obtainable with
triangles, use a protractor.
Plastic protractors are
satisfactory for most
angular measurements
Nickel silver protractors are
available when high accuracy
is required
25. DRAWING A SQUARE
You can use the AutoCAD Polygon
command to draw squares. The
Rectangle command is another quick
way to make a square in AutoCAD.
• T-square Method
• Diameters Method
• Inscribed Circle Method
27. DRAWING A HEXAGON
Each side of a hexagon is equal to the radius of the circumscribed circle
Use a compass
Centerline Variation
Steps
28. Drawing an Octagon
Given an inscribed circle, or distance
“across flats”, use a T-square or
straightedge and a 45° triangle to draw
the eight sides tangent to the circle.
Given a circumscribed square, (the distance
“across flats”) draw the diagonals of the
square. Then, use the corners of the square
as centers and half the diagonal as the
radius to draw arcs cutting the sides
29. FINDING THE CENTER OF A
CIRCLE
This method uses the principle that any right triangle inscribed in a circle
cuts off a semicircle.
Another method, slightly longer, is to reverse the procedure. Draw two
nonparallel chords and draw perpendicular bisectors. The intersection of the
bisectors will be the center of the circle.
30. DRAWING TANGENTS TO TWO
CIRCLES
AutoCAD software provides a
convenient object snap for
finding tangency.
31. DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO A LINE OR
ARC AND THROUGH A POINT
Tangents
32. DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO
LINES AT RIGHT ANGLES
For small radii, such as 1/8R for fillets and rounds, it is not practicable
to draw complete tangency constructions. Instead, draw a 45° bisector
of the angle and locate the center of the arc by trial along this line
33. DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO LINES AT ACUTE
OR OBTUSE ANGLES
36. Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs and
Enclosing One or Both
37. DRAWING AN OGEE CURVE
Connecting Two Parallel Lines Connecting Two Nonparallel Lines
38. THE CONIC SECTIONS
The conic sections are curves produced by planes intersecting a right circular
cone.
Four types of curves are produced: the circle, ellipse, parabola, and
hyperbola, according to the position of the planes.
40. DRAWING A CONCENTRIC CIRCLE
ELLIPSE
If a circle is viewed with the line of sight perpendicular to the plane
of the circle…
…the circle will appear as a circle, in true size and shape
41. DRAWING A PARALLELOGRAM
ELLIPSE
The intersection of like-numbered lines will be points on the ellipse. Locate points in the
remaining three quadrants in a similar manner. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points,
then darken the final ellipse with the aid of an irregular curve.
42. ELLIPSE TEMPLATES
These ellipse guides are usually designated by the ellipse angle, the
angle at which a circle is viewed to appear as an ellipse.
43. Irregular Curves
The curves are largely successive segments of geometric curves,
such as the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, and involute.
44. DRAWING AN APPROXIMATE
ELLIPSE
For many purposes, particularly where a small ellipse is required, use the
approximate circular arc method.
45. DRAWING A PARABOLA
The curve of intersection between a right circular cone and a plane parallel
to one of its elements is a parabola.
46. DRAWING A HELIX
A helix is generated by a point moving around and along the surface of a
cylinder or cone with a uniform angular velocity about the axis, and with a
uniform linear velocity about the axis, and with a uniform velocity in the
direction of the axis
47. DRAWING AN INVOLUTE
An involute is the path of a point on a string as the string unwinds from a line,
polygon, or circle.
48. DRAWING A CYCLOID
A cycloid is generated by a point P on the circumference of a circle that
rolls along a straight line
Cycloid
49. DRAWING AN EPICYCLOID OR A
HYPOCYCLOID
Like cycloids, these curves are used to form the outlines of certain gear teeth and are therefore
of practical importance in machine design.
51. OBJECTIVES
1. Represent curved surfaces in multiview drawings
2. Show intersections and tangencies of curved and planar surfaces
3. Represent common types of holes
4. Show fillets, rounds, and runouts in a 2D drawing
5. Use partial views
6. Apply revolution conventions when necessary for clarity
7. Draw removed views and projected views
8. Show right- and left-hand parts
9. Project curved surfaces by points
10. Show and label an enlarged detail
11. Show conventional breaks
52. Common Manufactured Features
• Fillet
• Round
• Counterbore
• Countersink
• Spotface
• Boss
• Lug
• Flange
• Chamfer
• Neck
• Keyway/Keyseat
• Knurl
• Bushing
55. CYLINDERS WHEN SLICED
Cylinders are often machined to form plane or other types of surfaces.
Normal surfaces appear true shape in the view where the line of sight is
perpendicular to the surface. In the two other views that normal surface
appears on edge. The back half remains unchanged.
56. CYLINDERS AND ELLIPSES
If a cylinder is cut by an inclined plane, the inclined surface is bounded by
an ellipse. This ellipse will appear as a circle in the top view, as a straight
line in the front view, and as an ellipse in the side view.
When a circular shape is shown inclined in another view and projected into
the adjacent view it will appear as an ellipse, even though the shape is a
circle.
57. INTERSECTIONS AND TANGENCIES
Where a curved surface is tangent to a plane surface no line is drawn, but
when it intersects a plane surface, a definite edge is formed.
When plane surfaces join a contoured surface, a line is shown if they are
intersect, but not shown if they tangent.
58. Intersections of Cylinders
When the intersection is small, its
curved shape is not plotted
accurately because it adds little to
the sketch or drawing for the time it
takes. Instead it is shown as a
straight line.
When the intersection is larger,
it can be approximated by
drawing an arc with the radius
the same as that of the large
cylinder.
59. FILLETS AND ROUNDS
A rounded interior corner is called a fillet. A rounded exterior
corner is called a round.
(Courtesy of Ross Traeholt.)
(Courtesy of Douglas Wintin.)
Rounds on a CAD Model of a
Design for a Three-Hole Punch
Fillets on a CAD Model.
60. RUNOUTS
Small curves called runouts are used to represent
fillets that connect with plane surfaces tangent to
cylinders.
Runouts from different filleted
intersections will appear
different owing to the shapes of
the horizontal intersecting
members.
61. CONVENTIONAL EDGES
There is a conventional way of showing rounded and filleted edges for
the sake of clarity. Added lines depicting rounded and filleted edges.
Rounded and filleted intersections eliminate sharp edges and can make it difficult to
present the shape clearly.
63. PARTIAL VIEWS
A view may not need to be complete but needs to show what is necessary to clearly
describe the object. This is called a partial view and is used to save sketching
time and make the drawing less confusing to read.
You can use a break line to limit the partial view…
OR
64. Showing Enlarged Details
When adding a detail,
draw a circle
around the features
that will be included in
the detail
Place the detail view on the
sheet as you would a removed
view. Label successive details
with the word DETAIL followed
by a letter, as in DETAILA,
DETAIL B,
65. Conventional Breaks
To shorten the view of a long object, you can use break lines…
Using a break to leave out a portion of the part, but allows the scale for the ends
to be increased to show the details clearly.
66. ALIGNMENT OF VIEWS
Always draw views in the “standard” arrangement...
Because CAD makes it easy to move whole views, it is
tempting to place views where they fit on the screen or
plotted sheet and not in the standard arrangement. This
is not acceptable.
3D CAD software that generates 2D drawing views as
projections of the 3D object usually has a setting to
select from third-angle or first-angle projection. Check
your software if you are unsure which projection methods
are available.
67. REMOVED VIEWS
A removed view is a complete or partial view removed to another place on the sheet
so that it is no longer in direct projection with any other view.
Removed View Using
Viewing-Plane Line
Removed View Using
View Indicator Arrow
68. REVOLUTION CONVENTIONS
Regular multiview projections are sometimes awkward, confusing, or
actually misleading.
Revolutions like these are
frequently used in connection
with sectioning. Revolved
sectional views are called
aligned sections.
72. PAPER SIZE BORDER WIDTH (mm) DIMENSIONS OF
DRAWING SHEETS
(mm)
BOTH SIDES TOP & BOTTOM
A B
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
20
20
10
10
10
20
20
10
10
10
1189 x 841
841 x 594
594 x 420
420 x 297
297 x 210
Sheets Frame
(Borderlines)
74. Material or Parts List
The list should give the following information:
The item or part number
The part name
The quantity required
The material and its specification
The drawing number of each individual part
Other information considered appropriate
75. Revision Table
• A table of revision normally located in the upper right-hand
corner of the drawing frame
• It is important requirement in all drawing and design offices
• when minor revision are required, it is much easier to
revise an existing drawing than to create a new one
ZONE REF REVISION BY CKD DATE
76. Zoning
• Drawing may be divided into zones by a grid reference system based
on numbers and letters.
• Purpose: to assist location of detail. Particularly useful on large
drawing.
• Horizontal zones are designated by capital letter starting with A (top to
bottom)
• Vertical zones are designated by numbers reading from left to right.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
B B
C C
D D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8