A hyperlinked and animated PowerPoint presentation on DNA transcription, its stages, units, etc.
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Prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription with their clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA transcription with their clinical applications for Medical, dental, Pharma & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
A hyperlinked and animated PowerPoint presentation on DNA transcription, its stages, units, etc.
Hope you will like it.
Please do share with your friends
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription with their clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA transcription with their clinical applications for Medical, dental, Pharma & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
Transcription and synthesis of different RNAs
Processing of RNA transcript
Catalytic RNA
RNA splicing and Spliceosome
Transport of RNA through nuclear pore
Translation and polypeptide synthesis
Posttranslational modification
Protein trafficking and degradation
Antibiotics and inhibition of protein synthesis.
Transcription is the process in which a gene's DNA sequence is copied (transcribed) to make an RNA molecule.
RNA polymerase is the main transcription enzyme.
Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to a promoter sequence near the beginning of a gene (directly or through helper proteins).
RNA polymerase uses one of the DNA strands (the template strand) as a template to make a new, complementary RNA molecule.
Transcription ends in a process called termination. Termination depends on sequences in the RNA, which signal that the transcript is finished.
Protein synthesis is the process whereby biological cells generate new proteins. Translation, the assembly of amino acids by ribosomes, is an essential part of the biosynthetic pathway, along with generation of messenger RNA (mRNA), aminoacylation of transfer RNA (tRNA), co-translational transport, and post-translational modification. Protein biosynthesis is strictly regulated at multiple steps. They are principally during transcription (phenomenon of RNA synthesis from DNA template) and translation (phenomenon of amino acid assembly from RNA). The cistron DNA is transcribed into the first of a series of RNA intermediates. The last version is used as a template in synthesis of a polypeptide chain. Protein will often be synthesized directly from genes by translating mRNA. A proprotein is an inactive protein containing one or more inhibitory peptides that can be activated when the inhibitory sequence is removed by proteolysis during post translational modification. A preprotein is a form that contains a signal sequence (an N-terminal signal peptide) that specifies its insertion into or through membranes, i.e., targets them for secretion. The signal peptide is cleaved off in the endoplasmic reticulum. Preproteins have both sequences (inhibitory and signal) still present. In protein synthesis, a succession of tRNA molecules charged with appropriate amino acids are brought together with an mRNA molecule and matched up by base-pairing through the anti-codons of the tRNA with successive codons of the mRNA. The amino acids are then linked together to extend the growing protein chain, and the tRNAs, no longer carrying amino acids, are released. This whole complex of processes is carried out by the ribosome, formed of two main chains of RNA, called ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and more than 50 different proteins. The ribosome latches onto the end of an mRNA molecule and moves along it, capturing loaded tRNA molecules and joining together their amino acids to form a new protein chain.
The process by which an RNA copy of a gene is made or it’s a DNA dependent RNA synthesis.
Transcription resembles replication
In its fundamental chemical mechanism
Its polarity (direction of synthesis)
Its use of a template
Transcription differs from replication
It does not requires a primer
It involves only limited segments of a DNA molecule
Within transcribed segments only one DNA strand serves as a template for synthesis of RNA.
Photosystem II captures and transfers energy.
– chlorophyll absorbs
energy from sunlight
– energized electrons
enter electron
transport chain
– water molecules are
split
– oxygen is released as
waste
– hydrogen ions are
transported across
thylakoid membrane
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• Photosystem I captures energy and produces energycarrying molecules.
– chlorophyll absorbs
energy from sunlight
– energized electrons
are used to make
NADPH
– NADPH is transferred
to light-independent
reactions
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• The light-dependent reactions produce ATP.
– hydrogen ions flow through a channel in the thylakoid
membrane
– ATP synthase attached to the channel makes ATP
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• Light-independent
reactions occur in the
stroma and use CO2
molecules.
The second stage of photosynthesis uses energy from
the first stage to make sugars.
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• A molecule of glucose is formed as it stores some of the
energy captured from sunlight.
– carbon dioxide molecules enter the Calvin Photosystem II captures and transfers energy.
– chlorophyll absorbs
energy from sunlight
– energized electrons
enter electron
transport chain
– water molecules are
split
– oxygen is released as
waste
– hydrogen ions are
transported across
thylakoid membrane
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• Photosystem I captures energy and produces energycarrying molecules.
– chlorophyll absorbs
energy from sunlight
– energized electrons
are used to make
NADPH
– NADPH is transferred
to light-independent
reactions
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• The light-dependent reactions produce ATP.
– hydrogen ions flow through a channel in the thylakoid
membrane
– ATP synthase attached to the channel makes ATP
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• Light-independent
reactions occur in the
stroma and use CO2
molecules.
The second stage of photosynthesis uses energy from
the first stage to make sugars.
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• A molecule of glucose is formed as it stores some of the
energy captured from sunlight.
– carbon dioxide molecules enter the Calvin Photosystem II captures and transfers energy.
– chlorophyll absorbs
energy from sunlight
– energized electrons
enter electron
transport chain
– water molecules are
split
– oxygen is released as
waste
– hydrogen ions are
transported across
thylakoid membrane
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• Photosystem I captures energy and produces energycarrying molecules.
– chlorophyll absorbs
energy from sunlight
– energized electrons
are used to make
NADPH
– NADPH is transferred
to light-independent
reactions
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• The light-dependent reactions produce ATP.
– hydrogen ions flow through a channel in the thylakoid
membrane
– ATP synthase attached to the channel makes ATP
4.1 Chemical Energy and ATP
• Light-independent
reactions occur in the
stroma and use CO2
molecules.
The second stage of photosynthesis uses energy frvf
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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2. Transcription
• Cells are governed by a cellular chain of command
– DNA RNA protein
• Transcription
– Is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of
DNA
– Produces messenger RNA (mRNA)
– For this purpose, one of the 2 strands of DNA
serves as a template(anti sense or non coding
strand) and produces working copies of RNA
molecules.
– Other DNA strand referred as coding strand used
since with the exception of T for U
3. • Transcription is selective
• Primary transcript : product formed in
transcription ,are inactive. which undergo
alterations like splicing,terminal addition,base
modifications…etc known as post
transcriptional modifications to produce
functionally active RNA molecules.
4.
5. Transcription in prokaryotes
• There is a single prokaryotic RNA polymerase that
synthesizes all types of RNA in the cell.
• The core polymerase responsible for making the RNA
molecule has the subunit structure (α2ββ`).
• A protein factor called sigma (σ) is required for the
initiation of transcription at a promoter. Sigma factor is
released immediately after-initiation of transcription.
• Termination of transcription sometimes requires a protein
called rho (ρ) factor.
6. Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
• The stages of
transcription are
– Initiation
– Elongation
– Termination
Promoter
Transcription unit
RNA polymerase
Start point
53 35
35
53
53 35
53 35
5
5
Rewound
RNA
RNA
transcript
3
3
Completed RNA
transcript
Unwound
DNA
RNA
transcript
Template strand of
DNA
DNA
1
Initiation. After RNA polymerase binds to
the promoter, the DNA strands unwind, and
the polymerase initiates RNA synthesis at the
start point on the template strand.
2
Elongation. The polymerase moves downstream, unwinding the
DNA and elongating the RNA transcript 5 3 . In the wake of
transcription, the DNA strands re-form a double helix.
3 Termination. Eventually, the RNA
transcript is released, and the
polymerase detaches from the DNA.
7. Initiation
The following events occur during the expression of a prokaryotic
gene:
1. With the help of sigma factor, RNA polymerase recognizes and
binds to the promoter, region.
• The bacterial promoter contains two "consensus" sequences,
called the Pribnow box (or TATA box) and the -35 sequence.
The promoter identifies the start site for transcription and
orients the enzyme on the template strand.
8. Elongation
• RNA polymerase locates genes in DNA by searching for promoter
regions.
– The promoter is the binding site for transcription factors and RNA
polymerase.
• RNA polymerase moves along the template strand in the 3' to 5'
direction as it synthesizes the RNA product in the 5' to 3' direction
using NTPs (ATP, GTP, CTP, UTP) as substrates. RNA polymerase
does not proofread its work. The RNA product is complementary and
antiparallel to the template strand.
• The coding (non-template) strand is not used during transcription. It is
identical in sequence to the RNA molecule, except that RNA contains
uracil instead of the thymine found in DNA.
9. Termination
There are two kinds of transcription terminators commonly found
in prokaryotic genes:
– Rho-independent termination occurs when the newly formed
RNA folds back on itself to form a GC-rich hairpin loop
closely followed by 6-8 U residues due to the presence of
Palindromes. These two structural features of the newly
synthesized RNA promote dissociation of the RNA from the
DNA template.
– Rho-dependent termination requires participation of rho factor.
This protein binds to the newly formed RNA and moves toward
the RNA polymerase that has paused at a termination site. Rho
then displaces RNA polymerase from the 3' end of the RNA.
10. Transcription in eukaryotes
RNA polymerases
There are three eukaryotic RNA polymerases
• RNA polymerase I is located in the nucleolus and synthesizes 28S,
18S, and 5.8S rRNAs.
• RNA polymerase II is located in the nucleoplasm and synthesizes
hnRNA/mRNA and some snRNA.
• RNA polymerase III is located in the nucleoplasm and synthesizes
tRNA, some snRNA, and 5S rRNA.
• Transcription factors (such as TFIIB for RNA polymerase II) help
to initiate transcription.
11. Promoter sites
Transcription of a typical eukaryotic gene occurs as follows:
1. With the help of proteins called transcription factors, RNA
polymerase II recognizes and binds to the promoter region. The
basal promoter region of eukaryotic genes usually has two
consensus sequences called the TATA box (also called Hogness
box) and the CAAT box.
2. RNA polymerase II separates the strands of the DNA over a short
region to initiate transcription and read the DNA sequence. The
template strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction as the RNA product
(the primary transcript) is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Both
exons and introns are transcribed.
12. Initiation
• A large number of transcription factors interact
with eukaryotic promoter regions.
• TFIID,TFIIA,TEIIB,TFIIF,TFIIE,TFIIH
13. Transcription Enhancers and Silencers
• Both are Binding Sites for Transcription Factors (TF’s)
• Enhancers: Increase the amount of Transcription from a nearby
promoter (core + upstream elements)
• Silencers: Decrease amount of Transcription from nearby
promoters
• Initially Defined as being “Position and orientation independent”
– Found upstream, within, or downstream of genes
– Function in either orientation (not always true)
14. What Are Enhancers?
Enhancer = “non-promoter DNA elements that stimulate transcription”
• First found in eukaryotes and then found in bacteria
• Binding sites for transcription factors (= activators or enhancer binding
proteins).
• NOT the binding sites for RNA polymerase
• Can function over long distances (100 - 1000 bp) away from +1 sites
(upstream or downstream)
• They are also tissue-specific (rely on tissue-specific DNA-binding
proteins for activity).
• Sometimes a DNA element can act as an enhancer or a silencer
depending on what is bound to it.
15. Heterogenous nuclear RNA(hnRNA)
• The primary mRNA transcript produced by RNA Polymerase
II in eukaryotes is often referred to as heterogeneous nuclear
RNA. This is then processed to produce mRNA needed for
protein synthesis.
16. Post transcriptional modifications
• Transcription of RNA processing occur in the nucleus. After this, the
messenger RNA moves to the cytoplasm for translation.
• The cell adds a protective cap to one end, and a tail of A’s to the other end.
These both function to protect the RNA from enzymes that would degrade
• Most of the genome consists of non-coding regions called introns
– Non-coding regions may have specific chromosomal functions or have
regulatory purposes
– Introns also allow for alternative RNA splicing
• Thus, an RNA copy of a gene is converted into messenger RNA by doing 2
things
– Add protective bases to the ends
– Cut out the introns
18. Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Transcription
Prokaryotes
Location
Transcription
Transcription of mRNA
Type of mRNA
Occurs in cell cytoplasm
Transcription happen
simultaneously.
mRNA is transcribed
directly from template DNA
molecule.
The type of RNA
polymerase does not vary
with the bacterial type.
•Occurs in cell nucleus
•Transcription differ in
space and time
(transcription – nucleus,
translation – cytoplasm)
•Initially a pre-mRNA
molecule (primary
transcript) is formed and
then processed to yield a
mature mRNA
• The type of RNA varies
with the organisms.
eukaryotes
19. Prokaryotes eukaryotesRNA Polymerase
Subunits
Promoter Recognition
Type of Transcription
A single type of RNA
polymerase, which has a
core enzyme and other
subunits, is involved.
Prokaryotic RNA
polymerase consists of five
subunits.
In prokaryotes,
holoenzyme (RNA
polymerase + sigma factor)
recognizes and binds
directly to the promoter.
In prokaryotic, DNA is not
bound to the histone
proteins. Therefore,
transcription occurs
directly.
Type of RNA polymerase
varies according to the
type of RNA that is
transcribed.
Eukaryotic RNA
polymerase consists of 10
– 17 subunits.
In eukaryotes, promoter
recognition cannot be
carried out by RNA
polymerase alone.
a complex of histone
proteins and DNA should
be accessible, before the
transcription.
20. Promoter
Transcription Terminators
Binding to the RNA
Molecule
no such differentiation
can be seen.
Prokaryotic cells possess
two types of transcription
terminators; Rho-
dependent terminators
and Rho-independent
terminators.
Rho factor binds to the
growing RNA molecule in
the prokaryotic
transcription.
Eukaryotic DNA that is
identified by the RNA
polymerase II has two
parts of the promoter
known as core promoter
and regulatory promoter.
In eukaryotes
transcription, the three
RNA polymerases use
different mechanisms for
the termination.
Termination factor in
eukaryotes binds to the
template DNA molecule.